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a, b, c. Satellite images of the Dubai coastline in 1990 (a) and 2010 (b, c). Figure 10 c is a close-up of the box in Figure 10 b and displays Dubai's mega coastal developments (Source for Figure 10 a, b: Google Earth 2010; Source for Figure 10 c: Nakheel).
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The eight countries surrounding the Gulf (referred to as both the Persian and Arabian Gulf) - Bahrain, Kuwait,
Iran, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates - share a valuable marine ecosystem that now risks becoming seriously degraded by a number of anthropogenic impacts. Some of the most rapidly developing countries in the w...
Citations
... Bersuder et al. (2020) analyzed sediment samples from 34 sites at the coast of Bahrain and found that, with the exception of a small bay that received high load of sewage effluent, chemical contaminants were low, not posing a toxicological risk. Van Lavieren et al. (2011) in a policy report opined that the extensive coastal modification, dredging, and artificial island-building taking place in the Gulf countries ( Figure 12) can remove or damage marine habitats, alter water flow patterns and sediment distribution and transport, increase turbidity, resuspend contaminated sediment, and cause erosion and accretion in the Arabian Gulf. The intense marine traffic in the Arabian Gulf introduces ballast water in it. ...
The Arabian (Persian) Gulf, a shallow hypersaline sea, replenished with ocean water
from the narrow Strait of Hormuz, is perhaps the most congested water body in the
world. It is the most concentrated area of oil exploitation globally, a navigation center through which trillion US dollars of goods flow, the place where sensitive ecosystems exist, and the only long term freshwater source for the region.
The Gulf countries are characterized by extremely low precipitation and high
evaporation, no surface waters, and groundwater of low quality, fast being depleted
from over-pumping. Desalination has emerged as the answer to this limitation of the
region to supply fresh water to an expanding population, to a small, local agricultural
production, and to economic activities for the diversification of the Gulf States’
economies away from oil and gas.
The risks and threats to the water and ecosystems of the Arabian Gulf come from a
number of sources. Raw sewage discharge, alien species in ballast water, chemical and thermal pollution, deposition of microplastics and pollutants via dust storms are some of the threats to the Gulf’s water. Brine discharge from desalination plants constitutes a serious threat increasing Gulf’s salinity, reducing desalination plants’ efficiency, and deteriorating the marine environment.
This chapter provides an overview of the issues related to the Arabian Gulf, focusing on desalinated water production. The water situation of the Gulf countries is presented first, detailing water resources, per capita water consumption, and water use per economic sector. Subsequently, the desalinated water production and technologies in each Gulf state are expounded. The Arabian Gulf’s functions are discussed to demonstrate that the risks from desalination are only a part of a bigger picture, which requires a holistic management approach that considers all pollution sources and threats. The chapter concludes with a summary and perspective on the topic.
... This decline threatens the diverse marine assemblage's dependent on reefs for shelter and spawning grounds, and by extension, risks the livelihoods and well-being of communities reliant on fisheries and tourism (Burt & Bartholomew, 2019;Vaughan et al., 2019;Naser, 2014). With GCC governments seeking to shift from oilreliant to knowledge-based economies, calls for improved conservation management have supported a dramatic surge in scientists striving to document the status of regional reefs and understand how they may respond to future climate change pressures (Burt et al., 2020a(Burt et al., , 2020bVan Lavieren et al., 2011). Yet, the contributions of women in this critical sphere remains unquantified and understudied, despite calls for the importance of gender equity in conservation (Bennett et al., 2021;Gissi et al., 2018;Michalena et al., 2020). ...
As the most biodiverse and productive ecosystem in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), coral reefs have supported coastal communities for millennia. Demands for improved management and conservation following rapid development in the 1970s have led to a dramatic growth in science seeking to document and describe the status of regional reefs; however, the role of women in this field remains understudied. Using an explanatory semi-sequential mixed-methods design, in which a systematic review preceded semi-structured interviews, we address this gap by investigating the prevalence and perspectives of women conducting reef science in the GCC. Of the 852 reef-related publications included in the review, the majority (53 %) were exclusively authored by men, with no female authors occurring in the literature until 1985. The six-fold increase in female-inclusive publications that occurred in the subsequent three decades did not eliminate the substantial gender divide in publication output and the senior authorship position. Moreover, over half of published female scientists were researchers from the Global North, while Khaleeji researchers (citizens of GCC nations) were a minority-a trend with implications for knowledge leaks and ineffective conservation efforts. Six themes emerged from the interviews (n = 47): 1) history of female contributions to reef science in the GCC, 2) success factors for scientific productivity, 3) barriers affecting professional practice, 4) author collaboration and credit, 5) growing presence of Khaleeji researchers, 6) parachute and neocolonial science. Our results highlight the need to sustain diverse gender and local voices in research shaping conservation efforts. Considering that the region remains densely populated in coastal zones and dependent on the surrounding marine provinces, member states must propagate greater inclusive and indigenous representation in science to support advancement of reef research and conservation.
... Due to their extreme tolerances to seasonal temperature changes, coral communities in AG have the highest bleaching threshold (i.e., 35 °C) globally (Rezai et al. 2004;Riegl et al. 2012;Kavousi et al. 2014;Shuail et al. 2016). However, despite their high threshold, they are still susceptible to bleaching and it is reported that 70% of original AG reef cover (i.e., 3800 km 2 ) may be considered to have suffered bleaching-related mortality, and a further 27% threatened or at critical stages of degradation with declines linked to major bleaching events, e.g., 1998 (Wilkinson 2008;van Lavieren et al. 2011). In recent years, one-third of the world's coral reefs experienced huge losses due to the 2016 heat wave (Schiermeier 2018), whereas the AG reefs experienced a 1-year (2017) delay which resulted in severe mortality Paparella et al. 2019). ...
Bleaching events impact coral reef functionality and carbonate budget dynamics, which is reflected in reduced reef framework accretion, hindering reef ability to keep pace with sea-level rise projections. Reefs in the Arabian Gulf exist in harsh environmental conditions with seasonal temperatures ranging between 16 and 36 °C. Despite the high thermal thresholds (~ 35 °C) of corals in this region, extensive bleaching and high coral mortality have been reported regionally in 2017. We quantify reef carbonate budgets at a near shore and an offshore reef site in Bahrain pre-bleaching in May 2017 and post-bleaching in May 2018 to assess the impacts of the 2017 severe bleaching event on the budgetary state. Results indicate an overall decrease in hard coral cover from 14.2 ± 5.5 to 8.5 ± 1.4% and a decline in the net carbonate budget state from 3.6 ± 2.2 to 0.3 ± 0.3 kg CaCO3 m⁻² year⁻¹ at the shallow nearshore Fasht Al Adhm reef indicating a shift from a positive budgetary state to net neutral, while the deeper offshore Reef Bul Thamah has increased positively from 3.7 ± 1.2 to 4.2 ± 0.6 kg CaCO3 m⁻² year⁻¹. We attribute the decline in the nearshore reef to the bleaching event which took place between July and October 2017, resulting in high coral mortality rates and subsequent reduced framework carbonate production. Predicted warming trends present a threat to the structural integrity of shallow Bahraini reefs, compromising their ability to keep pace with future sea-level rise projections.
... For this reason, recently much attention is given to oyster beds as a nature based solution to mitigate climate change impacts (Hori et al. 2020). In the UAE, coastal defense is a valuable service to protect from threats such as strong storms and Shamal events (Meyer et al. 1997), becauseore than 85% of the UAE population lives in coastal areas, and numbers are projected to continue increasing (van Lavieren et al. 2011). ...
Oyster habitats in the United Arab Emirates are highly diverse marine ecosystems with fascinating historical cultural and fisheries importance for pearls, but also for provisioning local people with food and materials for direct consumption and income. Their hard structure protects coastal areas and human populations and their assets, while their strong filtering activity promotes clean waters and healthy and productive marine ecosystems. Oyster habitats in the UAE occur on both the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman coasts. They form oyster beds and oyster reefs and are distributed across coastal and offshore areas. These oyster habitats support hundreds of marine species that include valuable commercial species such as hamours (groupers), emperors (Lethrinidae), and snappers (Lutjanidae). The water quality in oyster ecosystems of Sharjah, Ajman and Umm al Quwain reflects good environmental conditions, yet the presence of microplastics in the sediment and oyster tissue evidence some pollution. Phytoplankton in these areas is diverse and includes several harmful algal bloom species. The current status and extent of oyster habitats in the UAE is known only for some emirates, but there is local scientific and management interest in addressing this gap for the conservation and restoration of these valuable habitats for the nation.
... • Support research and development in environmental sciences, with a focus on understanding and addressing the unique environmental and anthropogenic challenges faced by the UAE's ecosystems and biodiversity. This could include the establishment of rigorous research institutes supported by graduate training programs, and the provision of sustained, competitive funding for environmental research focused on national priorities van Lavieren et al. 2011;Al Marzouqi et al. 2019). • Foster inter-Emirate and regional cooperation on environmental issues, by sharing best practices, participating in joint conservation initiatives, and collaborating on trans-boundary environmental challenges such as climate change, marine pollution and migratory species (Aspinall 1996(Aspinall , 2001Knight et al. 2011;Sale et al. 2011;Al-Saidi 2021). ...
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) faces the challenge of balancing rapid economic development with environmental preservation and conservation in the Anthropocene era. The nation’s unique ecosystems, characterized by arid desert, rugged mountains, and diverse marine habitats, are vulnerable to disturbances such as urbanization, habitat degradation, groundwater extraction and climate change. To chart a more sustainable course for the Emirates by 2050, the paper proposes policy recommendations such as adopting a national strategy for sustainable development, strengthening environmental policies, investing in urban planning and design, promoting sustainable water management, encouraging use of nature-based solutions, addressing climate change, fostering environmental education, supporting research in environmental sciences, encouraging national and regional cooperation, promoting sustainable business practices in the private sector, and monitoring the progress of environmental policies. By embracing a vision of development that respects the natural environment and safeguards its plant and animal life, the UAE can demonstrate its commitment and serve as a model for other nations to follow, becoming a shining example of responsible development by 2050.
... The surveyed area is likely at risk due to large-scale environmental changes, similar to other regions of the Persian Gulf [3,[15][16][17]]. On a more localized level, small-scale threats may stem from various fishing activities and recreational diving, which may lead to habitat degradation; however, the area's considerable distance offshore and its greater depth act as protective factors, making it less likely to be adversely affected by these activities. ...
The Persian Gulf, a young and shallow epicontinental sea, is known for its unique geological and oceanographic characteristics that foster its diverse and productive marine ecosystems. A substantial portion of the Gulf's seafloor consists of unconsolidated soft sediments, making it unsuitable for colonization by many sessile organisms. Consequently, relatively few hard grounds and submerged banks provide suitable habitats for benthic and substrate dwellers. This study documents a unique marine habitat on an offshore submerged bank, likely a raised salt dome, south of Qeshm Island, Iran. This area is home to a high concentration of ahermatypic coral species and remains relatively sheltered from human activities. The bank's geographic location allows inflow currents from the Strait of Hormuz to transport larvae and nutrients, providing suitable substrates for various sessile invertebrates. Moreover, it causes the formation of Taylor columns, which affect fluid dynamics and circulation patterns, indirectly enhancing biodiversity. Despite facing risks from large-scale regional and localized threats, the bank's remoteness from the main coast and its depth provide some protection. This study emphasizes the need for continued exploration and the implementation of effective conservation measures in the region, along with additional research to clarify the ecological and physical parameters supporting its diversity. It also presents the first in situ photographic evidence for the occurrence of some octocoral genera in the Gulf. Future research should investigate how the species compositions of hidden banks and shoals contribute to the overall biodiversity of the Persian Gulf.
... A dramatic historical record of oil spills, ascribed by Gevao et al. (2016) partly to attacks on shipping during the First Gulf War (Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988, is seen as a sharp 1980s peak in the depth profile of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at ~ 35 cm in dated vertical sediment cores from the northern Gulf. There is increasing concern over impacts along these shores from anthropogenic sources, especially in the shallow, enclosed Gulf, with several reviews highlighting the potentially catastrophic damage and loss of vulnerable ecosystems and habitats (Al-Ghadban et al. 2008;Sale 2011;Sheppard et al. 2010;Van Lavieren et al. 2011;Vaughan et al. 2019). Whilst there are basin-wide impacts from incidents such as the 1991 oil spill, there are several additional sources of contamination such as run-off from agriculture in areas with higher rainfall from storms, discharges from food and chemical manufacturing plants, petrochemical industries, metal and non-metal industries, ship ballast water and impacts from antifouling paints (AFPs) leaching from vessel hulls, seaport activities, dry docks, and desalination plants. ...
This review assesses trace metal concentrations in nearshore and offshore bottom sediments in the Arabian Gulf and Oman focusing particularly on targeted monitoring studies of point sources of contamination near industrial zones (sometimes with ports) and desalination and power plants (often co-located). Concerns have been raised about harmful impacts from accumulation of metals in the semi-enclosed Gulf. The sediment trace metal contaminants of the greatest concern are highlighted with maximum levels of toxic trace metals such as As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, Zn, and TBT recorded near port and ship repair yards/dry docks as well as industrial and power/desalination plant discharge outfalls. The levels of metals such as Cd, Pb, and Hg exceeding sediment quality guidelines at identified hot spots are of concern. Efforts to mitigate future impacts are recommended.
... Since 1971, the country has witnessed expeditious economic and population growth due to the oil boom and is marked among the world's wealthiest nations (The World Bank, 2016). Due to its historical engagement in maritime trades, coastal and marine areas have continuously experienced massive urban development along the eastern shoreline of Doha (Lavieren et al., 2011;Sheppard et al., 2010). Scarce land is another significant factor in diversion toward coasts and marine development (Richer, 2009). ...
... Qatar's rampant population, followed by economic development and deterioration of coastal and marine environments due to developmental activities, is not unique and exceptional. The same conditions can be observed in many other countries bordering Arabian Gulf (Lavieren et al., 2011;Sheppard et al., 2010). No doubt, efforts have been made to rehabilitate the degraded ecosystems (Burt et al., 2017) to reduce the impacts of future developments. ...
... Still, the severity of damage depicts that Qatar's remaining coastal and marine ecosystems will continue to be vulnerable in the near future (Burt, 2014). However, there is always a silver lining to seeking guidance from the former experiences, gaps, and lessons from other nations to mitigate the potential impacts (Lavieren et al., 2011). ...
With the expeditious economic and population growth, trade, and tourism, artificial island development (AID) has gained interest in overcoming available land limitations in the past decades. The Arabian Gulf is characterized by extreme temperatures and high salinities and is home to diverse marine habitats comprising reefs, mangroves, swamps, and seagrass meadows. However, these ecosystems are witnessing stern pressure due to reclamation activities for AID. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) is extensively used globally to produce sustainable management standards. One such case of environmental concerns associated with the AID was focused on in this study is Qatar's island (QI). A comprehensive EIA was carried out before and during the construction activities. The analyses include meteorology, hydrodynamics, wave climate and bathymetry, seawater and sediment quality, infauna habitat and benthic species, and fish community. Results showed overall median turbidity levels recorded (5.39 NTU at buoy 1) and (2.46 NTU at buoy 2) were within the baseline survey (5.2 ± 11.8 NTU). Before construction, Se and Ba levels were higher according to the sediment quality analysis; however, during construction, the levels were within acceptable ranges per Dutch requirements. In addition, strategic measures and guidelines were proposed, which can be opted for future developments.
... Marine urbanisation has a wide range of effects on marine ecosystems, including homogenisation of environment, changes in biodiversity and productivity, the creation of novel assemblages, and the proliferation of species that benefit from human modification of the environment, such as ruderal species, invasive species and synanthropes (Todd et al., 2019). Some of the most serious threats to coastal ecosystems stem from marine urbanisation (Sheppard et al., 2010;Van Lavieren et al., 2011). But, along with the negative effects, urban and industrial habitats can also provide the foundation for diverse and abundant marine communities Burt and Bartholomew, 2019), support endangered species (Claassens, 2016), and enhance fish recruitment (Pastor et al., 2013). ...
Urban-industrial seascapes are prevalent around the world, yet we lack a basic understanding of how the mosaic of different habitats in these areas are used by mobile marine fauna, including features such as industrial ports and marinas. Urbanised areas have been alternately characterised in scientific literature as degraded, depauperate, or in some cases diverse and abundant. To advance our spatial and temporal understanding of the community of mobile marine fauna in these areas, we used repeated sonar image sampling over large swathes of two urban-industrial seascapes, combined with underwater video. 2,341 sonar segments were captured across Mackay Harbour and the Pioneer River estuary (North Queensland, Australia). We used this information to generate a preliminary understanding of the ecology of these locations. We found that overall, urban-industrial seascapes can contain counts of mobile marine fauna similar to natural areas, and that these seascapes are characterised by dynamic diel shifts in the spatial arrangement of mobile marine fauna in the water column. At night, large fish are prevalent in the water column, while during the day, assemblages are dominated by small fish. Within these urban-industrial seascapes, deeper areas containing heavy infrastructure such as ports can harbour large densities of fish, including heavily targeted fisheries species. These areas deserve recognition as marine habitat, are of consequence to fisheries, and have the potential to influence surrounding ecosystems. Important research questions remain regarding their impact on food webs and animal movement at larger scales.
... Since the oil boom in the 1970s, the UAE population has increased exponentially, and it has become increasingly difficult for local fisheries to support the fish demand of the country (van Lavieren et al., 2011). Imports from other countries to balance food production and consumption are increasing (Fathelrahman et al., 2014). ...
There is scarce information on the current importance of oyster beds as fishing grounds in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). This study aims to understand the socioeconomic value of oyster bed fisheries through questionnaire based surveys with fishers. Of 106 Emirati fishers interviewed, 67 % use oyster beds due to the proximity to shore, better catch quality, and species abundance. Oyster bed fisheries are recreational and commercial, with handline and fish traps the most common used gears. They provide food for local consumption and cash income. All respondents noticed a fish abundance and size decrease throughout the last decade. Fishers suggest establishing marine protected areas and updating fishing regulations to improve fishing stock status. During the Covid-19 pandemic, oyster fisheries increased, highlighting the value of these fishing grounds for food availability. These fisheries support the local economy and heritage, and urgently need management to ensure the protection of these often-overlooked habitats.
