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![(a) Typical structure of conventional multilayer insulation (MLI) and its installation, and (b) the structure of polyimide foam (PF)-MLI and its installation without seams or Velcro [116]](publication/360096894/figure/fig18/AS:1151464386904073@1651541911093/a-Typical-structure-of-conventional-multilayer-insulation-MLI-and-its-installation.png)
(a) Typical structure of conventional multilayer insulation (MLI) and its installation, and (b) the structure of polyimide foam (PF)-MLI and its installation without seams or Velcro [116]
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In recent planetary exploration space missions, spacecraft are exposed to severe thermal environments that are sometimes more extreme than those experienced in earth orbits. The development of advanced thermal control materials and devices together with reliable and accurate measurements of their thermophysical properties are needed for the develop...
Citations
... Fermentation in space, on the moon, or on the surface of Mars may require cooling in a vacuum or very low pressure atmosphere, which is typically costly (Von Arx and Delgado, 1991;Tachikawa et al., 2022). ...
Nature exhibits an enormous diversity of organisms that thrive in extreme environments. From snow algae that reproduce at sub-zero temperatures to radiotrophic fungi that thrive in nuclear radiation at Chernobyl, extreme organisms raise many questions about the limits of life. Is there any environment where life could not “find a way”? Although many individual extremophilic organisms have been identified and studied, there remain outstanding questions about the limits of life and the extent to which extreme properties can be enhanced, combined or transferred to new organisms. In this review, we compile the current knowledge on the bioengineering of extremophile microbes. We summarize what is known about the basic mechanisms of extreme adaptations, compile synthetic biology’s efforts to engineer extremophile organisms beyond what is found in nature, and highlight which adaptations can be combined. The basic science of extremophiles can be applied to engineered organisms tailored to specific biomanufacturing needs, such as growth in high temperatures or in the presence of unusual solvents.
... Thermal control is an important issue for spacecrafts and space stations [11], in order to maintain the temperature of equipment and instruments at safe operational and survivability levels during missions. The greatest difficulty lies in the particular operating conditions, often more extreme than those experienced on Earth, due to strong thermal variations consequent to the high radiation in the absence of atmospheric shielding [55]. A primary requisite for the study of the thermal problem, as well as for the development of advanced materials, consists in the reliable and accurate evaluation of the properties of the components, in particular of radiative parameters such as solar absorption [55,12,18]. ...
... The greatest difficulty lies in the particular operating conditions, often more extreme than those experienced on Earth, due to strong thermal variations consequent to the high radiation in the absence of atmospheric shielding [55]. A primary requisite for the study of the thermal problem, as well as for the development of advanced materials, consists in the reliable and accurate evaluation of the properties of the components, in particular of radiative parameters such as solar absorption [55,12,18]. ...
... Our study focuses on the windows for spacecrafts and space stations. The published contributions on thermal problems in space are mainly addressed to satellites [63,4,55,12], and basically consider the macroscopic effects on the entire object to safeguard the instrument functionality. To the best of our knowledge, very little attention has been paid specifically to space fenestration. ...
The overall heating of satellites operating in low orbit, essentially due to direct radiation from the sun and terrestrial albedo, and the planetary radiation, is well studied, but little is found specifically on transparent plates used for windowing spacecrafts. The most historic material of choice is fused silica, as in the cupola of the International Space Station; more recently, acrylic glass is being used, but its refractive properties are poorly documented. Starting from Maxwell’s laws, the effects of electromagnetic waves incident on multilayer windows composed of panes of fused silica or acrylic glass, or a composition of these, are analyzed. Using data of refractive index from the literature, which however are incomplete and sometimes contradictory, the problem is addressed by distinguishing the frequency of the radiation, because this affects the transmissibility and absorption of each material; moreover, the frequency content of the radiation of the solar and terrestrial albedo is different from that of the planet. Worked examples show that fused silica allows most radiation to pass directly through; absorption occurs in such a thin surface layer that it can be modeled as a boundary condition. Acrylic glass, on the other hand, is characterized by absorption depending on the thickness; this can potentially increase its temperature, posing a problem since the mechanical properties decay at temperatures above 100 °C. This study represents a key step to analyze the thermal problem for space windows, of considerable interest since glazing can fail due to thermal shocks, constrained thermal variations, or temperature concentrations.
... The purpose of the application of TCCs on spacecraft is to keep the temperature balance and maintain the interior temperature of spacecraft within a safety threshold. The steady thermal-balance state of spacecraft is connected to heat inputs and outputs, as shown in Fig. 3 [40]. The heat inputs from space to the spacecraft are associated with the solar radiation intensity (J S ), the albedo radiation intensity (J A ), and the planetary radiation intensity (J P ). ...
... And the wavelength range is typically 25 nm to 2500 nm. By calculating the reflectance of a sample for the wavelength range, the solar absorptivity can be derived by the following formula [40][41][42]: ...
... The infrared emissivity of TCCs can be detected by a Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer, and the infrared emissivity value is obtained based on the ratio of measured radiation to blackbody radiance [43][44][45]. The applied wavelength generally ranges from 2.5 µm to 25 µm, and the solar emissivity ε H can be calculated by the following formula [40,41,44,45]: ...
... Composite materials are widely used as load-bearing structures for spacecraft and near-space vehicles because of their high specific strength, strong damping capacity, and high specific modulus [1]. To protect the composite structure and sensitive payloads of spacecraft within acceptable temperature limits, the thermal protection system (TPS) should be installed on the base structure to withstand high temperature, temperature gradients, and aerodynamic shear during reentry or ultralow temperature on the dark side during orbit [2]. Although the surface temperature of TPS in the nose area, wing, and leading edges is up to a maximum temperature of 1700 K, the internal surface temperature of the base structure is much lower than that of TPS. ...
... Thermal matching among the base structure, TPS, and connecting elements is the concern of the spacecraft overall design [3]. It has been reported that the temperature constraint does not exceed a value of 573 K for lightweight CFRP skins, with a general operating condition temperature of 400 K [2,4]. Even so, the thermal-structural stresses induced by temperature gradients and aerodynamic pressure loads will aggravate the micro-deformation expansion of the base structure and materials, and even lead to structural failure. ...
... During different phases of a space mission, different structures of spacecraft are at different temperatures. For example, the outside temperature of spacecraft is changed from 53.15 K to 393.15 K during in-orbit service [2]. During re-entry, the temperature inside a reusable spacecraft is approximately 423 K. Due to the presence of the above problems, some researchers have begun to focus on FBG sensors for aerospace applications. ...
This paper proposes a hybrid measurement method using dual-FBG arrays to monitor the mechanical strain, temperature, and thermal strain during spacecraft re-entry. This method effectively separates temperature and mechanical effects and enables the simultaneous measurement of three physical parameters. Four service temperatures applied by the spacecraft were simulated to illustrate the application prospects of the method, with the highest test temperature being 160 °C. Under the thermal non-steady state, the average absolute error of the temperature measurement between the dual-FBG and the thermocouple did not exceed 2.799 °C. Meanwhile, the dual FBG-based thermal strain calculation was compared with the thermally measured strain with a relative error of no more than 6.520%. A finite element model at different temperatures was developed to calculate mechanical responses and is compared with the results obtained by FBG. The results show significant agreement between the measurement and the simulation, with a maximum error of 3.61%. These results provide a reliable reference for measuring the thermal response of the spacecraft.
... It comprises separated layers of highly reflective sheets that, in a vacuum, provide lightweight, high-performance radiative insulation. This basic design has changed little over the years 15 . While advances (to improve insulation performance) have been made 16 , there is no evidence of them being incorporated in spacecraft designs. ...
Terrestrial controlled environment agriculture (CEA) will have an increasingly important role in food production. However, present CEA systems are energy- and resource-hungry and rarely profitable, requiring a step change in design and optimization. Here we argue that the unique nature of space controlled environment agriculture (SpaCEA), which needs to be both highly resource efficient and circular in design, presents an opportunity to develop intrinsically circular CEA systems. Life-cycle analysis tools should be used to optimize the provision and use of natural or electrical light, power, nutrients and infrastructure in CEA and/or SpaCEA systems, and to guide research and development into subsystems that bring strong environmental advantages. We suggest that SpaCEA public outreach can also be used to improve the perception of terrestrial CEA on Earth by using space as a gateway for exhibiting CEA food growing technologies. A substantial focus on SpaCEA development should be viewed as an efficient contribution to addressing major current CEA challenges.
... the most challenging thermal condition is ultimately being experienced by naSa's Parker Solar Probe, which is passing directly through the Sun's atmosphere. explorations to the limit of our solar system, such as Pluto, which receives less than 0.1% of earth's solar energy, would be accompanied with additional difficulties [15]. ...
... The sum of Q D , Q A and Q IR usually ranges up to 1400 W/m 2 during LEO, resulting in a temperature range of approximately +70 • C to −20 • C [16], neglecting significant internal heat. The power emitted by the radiator is described by the well-known equation [17] ...
Future small satellites will demand high-performance on-board electronics, requiring sophisticated approaches to heat rejection beyond simply increasing the radiator surface area. An interesting alternative approach is to increase the surface temperature of the radiator, using a heat pump. In this study, calculations were carried out to compute the theoretical radiator size reduction potential enacted by having a heat pump as part of a satellite’s thermal management system. The practical likelihood of a ‘typical’ vapor compression cycle (VCC) heat pump satisfying theoretical requirements was considered. In agreement with theoretical calculations, employing a ‘typical’ VCC heat pump could either increase or decrease the required radiator surface area. The choice of heat pump and its design is therefore crucial. A heat pump with a large temperature lift is essential for satellite radiator cooling applications, with the coefficient of performance (COP) being less important. Even with a low COP, such as 2.4, a ‘typical’ heat pump providing a large temperature lift, close to 60 °C, could reduce the satellite’s radiator surface area by a factor close to 1.4. This is a significant potential reduction. The decision on whether to pursue this approach compared to alternatives, such as deployable radiators, should consider the relative complexity, cost, weight, size, reliability, etc., of the two options. The focus of this study is VCC heat pumps; however, the results provide performance targets for less mature heat pump technologies, e.g., caloric devices, which could ultimately be applied in space.
... Це пов'язано зі значним підвищенням не лише продуктивності та функціональності компонентної бази космічних пристроїв, але й підвищенням точності й надійності методів та засобів контролю робочих параметрів цих пристроїв, а також контролю зміни геометричних характеристик та функціональних властивостей поверхні матеріалів, які використовуються в екстремальних умовах космічного простору. Як зазначено в роботі [19], саме контроль поверхні матеріалів, які піддаються впливу космічних факторів (наднизьких та надвисоких температур, низького тиску, впливу радіаційного космічного випромінювання тощо) на етапі випробовування або ранніх стадіях їхньої експлуатації дозволяє виявити їхні можливі дефекти та брак, що, у свою чергу, мінімізує виникнення аварійних ситуацій при запуску або експлуатації космічної техніки. Останні, на думку фахівців [9,13,21], є основною причиною найбільш гучних аварій та катастроф, пов'язаних з дослідженнями космосу. ...
The article presents the advantages of the atomic force microscopy (AFM) method as one of the most versatile and promising methods for studying the surfaces of space engineering materials. A comparison of the results of the study of such materials using the example of aluminum nitride (AlN) by the methods of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and AFM was carried out. As a result of the comparison, it was established that, despite the higher resolution of the SEM method, its main disadvantages are the impossibility of vertical scanning of surfaces and the lack of an opportunity to study their physical and mechanical properties. The main features of the process of studying the topography of surfaces using the AFM method have been established. They are the possibility of high-precision positioning of the measuring instrument (with the accuracy of determining a given area — up to 40 nm), elimination of distortion of the obtained image of the studied area, and automatic correction of the research speed. The arithmetic mean values of the micro-roughnesses of the aluminum nitride surfaces obtained by the AFM method were determined both for samples that were not exposed to extreme environmental conditions (Ra = 147 nm; Rq = 163 nm) and samples that were exposed to extreme environmental conditions for a long time (120...140 hours), which simulates space conditions (temperature 550 °С, pressure 6.8...7.2 μbar) (Ra = 381 nm; Rq = 422 nm). The maximum porosity in the surface layer (up to 1.5 μm) of aluminum nitride samples was also determined in the range of 3...5.2%.
... However, they did not test their strategies in actual sites. Tachikawa et al. reviewed advanced passive thermal control materials and devices for space applications (Tachikawa et al., 2022). However, they did not mention the durability or cost of passive thin films. ...
Active thin film electrochromic or thermochromic coatings have been used in smart windows. However, the current cost of active thin film windows is approximately 10 times that of passive film windows. This paper proposes an inexpensive passive thin metal film for all-season energy savings. The proposed passive thin metal film allows heat to flow preferentially in one direction. Thin metal films attached to glass indoor can absorb solar heat and the solar can radiate the heat to a room and to the glass respectively until thermal equilibrium. Because of the heated metal film against the room, as long as the temperature of the film is higher than that of the room, there is no heat flux from the room to the thin metal film which is called perfect thermal insulation. The 960m 2 film was installed in an actual hotel in Japan over 10 years and contributed to reducing the energy cost of air conditioning from 54 million yen to 43 million yen, demonstrating an annual energy savings of 11 million yen (US$0.1 million). This paper briefly describes how the proposed economical passive thin metal film will provide all-season energy savings.
... Flight demonstrations of optimized La0.775Sr0.115Ca0.11MnO3 (dimensions 30 mm × 30 mm × 70 µ m) ceramic tiles on spacecrafts launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency confirmed a reduction in the SRD's temperature while saving heater power [39]. This being said, SRD technology based on doped LMO materials still seems to suffer from limitations in its optimal use for spacecrafts in general, and nanosatellites [37]. ...
... No details about the thicknesses of the layers could be found in their article. Flight demonstrations of optimized La 0.775 Sr 0.115 Ca 0.11 MnO 3 (dimensions 30 mm × 30 mm × 70 µm) ceramic tiles on spacecrafts launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency confirmed a reduction in the SRD's temperature while saving heater power [39]. This being said, SRD technology based on doped LMO materials still seems to suffer from limitations in its optimal use for spacecrafts in general, and nanosatellites in particular. ...
... The solution to this could be using doped LMO material in the form of thin films instead of ceramic tiles. Unfortunately, the emittance performance of doped-LMO films tends to be lower than that of ceramic tiles, and many recent studies have primarily focused on the improvement in the emittance performance of doped LMO-based perovskites when prepared in the form of thin films [39]. Other limitations, such as the wide metal-insulator transition ranges and slow transition speeds, must be tackled for effective use of doped LMO-based SRDs as passive thermal control systems for nanosatellites [40]. ...
Thermochromic vanadium dioxide (VO2)-based smart radiator devices (SRDs) display emittance variation with changes in temperature, making them very promising for energy-efficient thermal control of spacecrafts in general, and nanosatellites in particular. However, the high solar absorptance of the VO2-based SRDs remains too high for their intended application. Based on an approach combining optical simulation and experimental work, I demonstrate that an additional top stack layer alternating between high and low refractive indices made of a-Si(25 nm)/SiO2(67 nm) reduces the solar absorptance of a VO2-based SRD by 35% (from 0.43 to 0.28) while keeping the emittance performance of the SRD within the requirements for the intended application (low-temperature emittance εL = 0.35, high-temperature emittance εH = 0.81 and emittance tuneability with temperature Δε = 0.46). I also discuss factors to consider while designing additional top stack layers alternating between high and low refractive indices to further decrease the SRD’s solar absorptance without affecting its emittance performance.
