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(a) Map of Macedonia with the location of the royal palaces at Vergina and Pella, Greece. (b) The remains of an ancient Roman bridge at a distance of 25 km from the Macedonian palaces of Vergina and Pella.
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... the use of arch/vaulted stone-masonry structural formations for these underground Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina in Northern Greece, there is no evidence of such structural formations being used for bridges at that time. Figure 4a shows the location of the Macedonian royal palaces at Vergina and Pella in Northern Greece (red arrows). ...
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... the same figure, the location of the remains of an ancient Roman bridge (blue arrow) is also indicated. These remains correspond today to only one main arch with a span of 15 m and a height of 7.5 m (Figure 4b). This surviving part of a Roman stone-masonry bridge is dated between 50 A.D. and 150 A.D. and, as can be seen in the map of Figure 4a, is located at a close distance (25 km) from the Macedonian palaces of Vergina and Pella as well as for the important cities of Thessaloniki and Dion (30-40 km). ...
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... remains correspond today to only one main arch with a span of 15 m and a height of 7.5 m (Figure 4b). This surviving part of a Roman stone-masonry bridge is dated between 50 A.D. and 150 A.D. and, as can be seen in the map of Figure 4a, is located at a close distance (25 km) from the Macedonian palaces of Vergina and Pella as well as for the important cities of Thessaloniki and Dion (30-40 km). An inventory of Roman stone-masonry bridges is given by O'Connor [1]. ...
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... 39 depicts the state-of-stress profile throughout the Konitsa Bridge due to gravity load (Figure 39a depicts principal deviatoric stress, 39b vertical stress around the right-hand side (RHS) abutment and 38a vertical stress evolution during the gravity load analysis reaching stabilization for the start of earthquake analysis). Shown in Figure 40a is the location of the numerical model of Konitsa Bridge where the seismic response is predicted (crown, Loc-3, Loc-2, Loc-1) having as input motion the described seismic excitation throughout all the base points (Base EQ input). Figure 40b depicts the horizontal (in-plane and out-of-plane) and vertical crown displacement seismic response of the Konitsa Bridge predicted using the non-linear numerical analysis. ...
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... in Figure 40a is the location of the numerical model of Konitsa Bridge where the seismic response is predicted (crown, Loc-3, Loc-2, Loc-1) having as input motion the described seismic excitation throughout all the base points (Base EQ input). Figure 40b depicts the horizontal (in-plane and out-of-plane) and vertical crown displacement seismic response of the Konitsa Bridge predicted using the non-linear numerical analysis. As can be seen in Figure 40b, the maximum predicted out-of-plane horizontal crown displacement is somewhat larger than the maximum value predicted by the linear time-history analysis in Section 7.1 (Figure 30a). ...
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... 40b depicts the horizontal (in-plane and out-of-plane) and vertical crown displacement seismic response of the Konitsa Bridge predicted using the non-linear numerical analysis. As can be seen in Figure 40b, the maximum predicted out-of-plane horizontal crown displacement is somewhat larger than the maximum value predicted by the linear time-history analysis in Section 7.1 (Figure 30a). The maximum predicted in-plane vertical crown displacement (Figure 40b) predicted by this non- linear earthquake analysis is significantly larger (approximately four times) than the maximum value predicted by the linear time-history analysis in Section 7.1 (Figure 30a). ...
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... can be seen in Figure 40b, the maximum predicted out-of-plane horizontal crown displacement is somewhat larger than the maximum value predicted by the linear time-history analysis in Section 7.1 (Figure 30a). The maximum predicted in-plane vertical crown displacement (Figure 40b) predicted by this non- linear earthquake analysis is significantly larger (approximately four times) than the maximum value predicted by the linear time-history analysis in Section 7.1 (Figure 30a). This must be attributed to the fact that the linear analysis performed in Section 7.1 is three-dimensional but employing a numerical model of the bridge that represents its mid-surface, whereas the 3-D non-linear simulation utilizes a model where the bridge is simulated with its actual thickness (compare Figure 15 with Figures 35 and 36). ...
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... must be attributed to the fact that the linear analysis performed in Section 7.1 is three-dimensional but employing a numerical model of the bridge that represents its mid-surface, whereas the 3-D non-linear simulation utilizes a model where the bridge is simulated with its actual thickness (compare Figure 15 with Figures 35 and 36). Thus, the vertical displacement at the crown (see Figure 40a) predicted by the 3-D non-linear analysis represents the vertical displacement at the façade of the crown cross section of the bridge, which includes a contribution from the out- of-plane response, and not the vertical displacement of the crown at mid-surface, as is the case for the simplified analysis of Section 7.1 (Figure 30a). The in-plane horizontal displacement predicted by both the linear and the non-linear earthquake analyses has relatively very small amplitude. ...
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... record was observed at the surface of basalt rock and has a maximum acceleration of 0.189 g. It has been characterized as a near-field earthquake and it exhibits remarkable similarity to the Konitsa 1996 earthquake (Figure 44, top). The second earthquake is the 1940 El-Centro normalized to 0.19 g (Figure 44, bottom) allowing for direct comparison with the similar PGA Konitsa-1996 and Ito-Oki near-field earthquakes. ...
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... has been characterized as a near-field earthquake and it exhibits remarkable similarity to the Konitsa 1996 earthquake (Figure 44, top). The second earthquake is the 1940 El-Centro normalized to 0.19 g (Figure 44, bottom) allowing for direct comparison with the similar PGA Konitsa-1996 and Ito-Oki near-field earthquakes. The direct comparison of the response spectra of the three earthquakes (Konitsa-1996, Ito-Oki and normalized 1940 El-Centro) is shown in Figure 45. ...
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... second earthquake is the 1940 El-Centro normalized to 0.19 g (Figure 44, bottom) allowing for direct comparison with the similar PGA Konitsa-1996 and Ito-Oki near-field earthquakes. The direct comparison of the response spectra of the three earthquakes (Konitsa-1996, Ito-Oki and normalized 1940 El-Centro) is shown in Figure 45. The objective of subjecting the Konitsa Bridge to the same PGA but different spectral content earthquakes is to directly compare the damageability potential based on the non-linear response of the bridge and shed some light on sensitivities to the type of earthquake these type of structures (masonry stone bridges) exhibit. ...
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... damage potential is quite limited and it confirms the observations made post 1996-Konitsa earthquake of the bridge. Figure 46a and b depict the Konitsa Bridge out-of-plane displacement and stress response, respectively. On this basis and by comparing these maximum response values with the corresponding maximum values obtained utilizing the 1996-Konitsa earthquake record as input motion (Figures 30a and b, 40b, 41a and b), it can be concluded that the potential damage vulnerability from the Ito-Oki earthquake resembles that of the Konitsa-1996 earthquake. ...
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... almost all the stone-masonry bridges in Greece have been built mostly for relatively light live load levels resulting from the crossing of pedestrians or animal flocks, their structural vulnerability due to traffic conditions is not an issue. Instead, flooding of the narrow gorge currents that these bridges cross ( Figure 49a) is one of the main structural damage causes, as demonstrated from the Plaka Bridge (see Figure 50a and b). Apart from the hydrodynamic loads that a stone-masonry bridge is subjected to from a flooded current, one of the main sources of distress that may lead to partial or total collapse is the deformability of the foundation. ...
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... from the hydrodynamic loads that a stone-masonry bridge is subjected to from a flooded current, one of the main sources of distress that may lead to partial or total collapse is the deformability of the foundation. The deformability of the foundation and the potential for subsequent collapse does include not only wash-out effects from a sudden flooded current but also the cumulative deformability of the foundation in a wider time window as was demonstrated by a recent flooding of Pineios river that caused the tilting of a mid-pier and the partial collapse of the Diava-Kalampaka-reinforced concrete bridge in Thessaly, Greece (16 January 2016, Figure 49b). Thus, foundation maintenance seems to be of the utmost importance. ...
Similar publications
Citations
... Several studies aimed to consider maintenance parameters regarding seismic vulnerability. Manos et al. [35] discussed maintenance issues related to the structural integrity of stone-masonry bridges. However, no analytical process was introduced. ...
A severe seismic event can cause significant damage to infrastructure systems, resulting in severe direct and indirect consequences. A comprehensive risk-management approach is required for earthquake-resilient infrastructure. This study presents an innovative approach to seismic risk assessment and aims to integrate maintenance considerations with seismic fragility curves. The proposed methodology uniquely quantifies the impact of maintenance conditions on seismic risk, presenting a dynamic perspective of risk changes attributable to maintenance and deterioration. The methodology hinges on the hypothesis that the maintenance condition of the infrastructure and the level of deterioration impacts the seismic resilience of the infrastructure. The methodology synergizes the Building Performance Index (BPI) and the deterioration over time to evaluate their cumulative effect on fragility curves to estimate the infrastructure’s total risk over the lifecycle (TRLC). This proposed methodology is demonstrated through a case study of a low-voltage substation in Bik’at HaYarden, Israel. A Monte Carlo simulation was carried out for the specific conditions of the analyzed substation. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis was performed to understand better the effect of maintenance conditions over time on the TRLC. Key insights reveal a statistically significant correlation between infrastructure performance and maintenance and their consequential impact on the TRLC. Notably, declining maintenance conditions intensify seismic risk uncertainties. The research proposes to researchers, stakeholders, and decision-makers a novel comprehensive perspective on the indispensability of maintenance for seismic risk management and mitigation.
... As in all such cases, the most challenging stage of this work was developing the input parameters due to the lack of reliable information about the mechanical properties of the stones that make up the bridge. To mitigate this, articles about similar bridges in nearby cities in Turkey and other countries were studied [8,[14][15][16][17], and geotechnical studies in the Kurdistan Region were taken into account. In particular, the work of Daoud et al. [18] was consulted, where the authors presented valuable data on the mechanical properties of limestone in our region. ...
This study aimed to investigate the stress-strain and strain energy density (SED) states of Dalal stone arch bridge in Mesopotamia. Structural modeling of ancient bridge made of natural stone has been proven reliable, and accurate results have been obtained using 3D finite elements. Based on the more applicable theories of failure, a general methodology is presented for evaluating the ringstone of the largest ellipse-shaped arch of the Dalal Bridge. The elliptical arch was built in the COMSOL Multiphysics complex using 70 3D elements to represent the number of stones used along the length of the arch in the Dalal Bridge. Therefore, to create an accurate model, the coordinates of the four nodes of each stone were entered. Then, all domains were extruded for 0.8 m in the y-axis direction, i.e., 0.8 m of the bridge width was selected for investigation. That is, tapered fields were used to represent the stones of the arch ring. Using Rankine’s, St. Venant’s, and Haigh’s theories, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of all components of the stresses and SED states are investigated. The maximum positive values of the principal stresses, σ1, σ2, and σ3, in the 3D model reach 1.4, 0.51, and 0.09 MPa, respectively, and their maximum negative values were 13, 6.8, and 3.4 MPa, respectively. The equivalent principal stresses determined via a 2D investigation did not exceed these values. Evaluating the ringstone against the maximum principal strain theory (i.e., St. Venant’s theory) reveals a safety factor of four in the existing state. Also, application of Haigh’s theory confirms the results of the previously applied approaches. Even though the safety of the arch, according to the total strain energy theory (i.e., Haigh’s approach), has been verified, a significant variation in the nonuniformity of the distribution of the SED (0.0011 J/m3–4416 J/m3) confirmed that the geometry of the investigated arch is not optimal for applied loading. The maximum value of the vertical component of the displacement is 3.4 mm, significantly lower than the allowable deflection for such an arch span.
... Bricks and mortar are well-known to behave and interact nonlinearly and accordingly to complex models (for instance, Ref. [4] analysed in detail the evolutionary phenomenon of mortar de-bonding, while Ref. [54] proposed an identification procedure for seismic damage); splitting or surface spalling may happen due to stress concentration over time, and loss of bricks cohesion, while generally unlikely, is not impossible. The interested audience may refer to Ref. [5] for a deeper discussion about the structural performances of masonry bridges in the context of Structural Bridge Engineering. ...
The increasingly request for the maintenance of the architectural heritage has led in the last decades to the extensive use of System Identification (SI) techniques for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) purposes. These proved to be useful tools for assessing the state of conservation of the built environment and its behaviour in operating conditions. In particular, historical masonry structures and infrastructures present several compelling difficulties. Masonry is non-linear and its mechanical properties are uncertain due to the presence of local irregularities and its internal texture. Moreover, centuries-old buildings are severely affected by deterioration, eventual restoration interventions, and exposure to weather conditions. In this work, the Fast Relaxed Vector Fitting (FRVF) approach is proposed as a rapid, efficient, and reliable instrument for the vibration-based SI of such structures. The method is preliminarily validated on simple numerical examples and a multi-damaged cantilevered box beam, then tested on a true 1:2 scaled model of a masonry two-span arch bridge. The results match well the estimations from other well-established SI techniques, such as the Eigensystem Realization Algorithm (ERA), and can be utilised for damage assessment (with all the standard advantages and limitations of modal-based outlier detection). Stabilisation diagrams and frequency-damping plots are also proposed for FRVF.
... On the contrary, their size spans from 8m to 40m when a single arch is employed (Konitsa) or over 70m for multi-arch structures (Plaka). More information on the geometry, construction characteristics and mechanical properties of the employed materials are given by Manos et al. (2016). Today, these structures have retain but only a small part of this primary function, as new roads and bridges have been built to facilitate the contemporary transportation needs. ...
... Due to space limitations only selective measurements of the out-of-plane response, which was recorded utilizing either the wind or the drop weight excitation are included here. More information is reported by Manos et al. (2016). Frequency range (Hz) F F T amplitud e (mm/sec) Out-of-plane Hor. ...
... All available information, measured during the in-situ campaign, on the geometry of each one of these parts was used in building up these numerical simulations. The mechanical property values obtained from the stone and mortar sample tests were utilized (see Manos et al. (2016). Moreover, there is important information that is needed in order to form with some real-ism the boundary conditions at the river bed and banks. ...
... However, for both models, the out-of-plane stiffness of the model is underestimated. The reason for this finding, as highlighted in (Manos et al., 2016) for similar bridge types in Greece, may lie in the anisotropic behavior of the bridge's masonry, which is not taken into account in the model. ...
This paper describes a model updating procedure implemented in NOSA-ITACA, a finite-element (FE) code for the structural analysis of masonry constructions of historical interest. The procedure, aimed at matching experimental frequencies and mode shapes, allows for fine-tuning the calculations of the free parameters in the model. The numerical method is briefly described, and some issues related to its robustness are addressed. The procedure is then applied to a simple case study and two historical structures in Tuscany, the Clock Tower in Lucca and the Maddalena Bridge in Borgo a Mozzano.
... Stone masonry bridges are another structural type that suffer from foundation settlement [5]. In this case, foundation deformability, which results from long term river flow or short term turbulent river flow from flooding, also leads to the collapse of such stone masonry structures [6,7]. The worst case scenario for the various masonry structural elements is the accumulation of stress and strain from such long term effects and the absence of any appropriate counter-measures. ...
... This difficulty is due to the immense variability of old stone masonry in terms of materials and construction techniques and the subsequent lack of relevant in-situ or laboratory measurements. Recordings of the dynamic response of a particular structure from in-situ man-made excitations can be utilized in order to validate a given numerical simulation [6,7]. During the past decade, numerous researchers have proposed the application of complex numerical simulations for predicting the performance of old stone masonry structures like then ones investigated here. ...
Unreinforced stone masonry made of low strength mortar has been used for centuries in forming old type stone masonry churches of the “Basilica” typology. The seismic performance of such stone masonry structures damaged during recent strong seismic activity in Greece, combined with long term effects from foundation settlement, is presented and discussed. A simplified numerical process is presented for evaluating the performance of such damaged stone masonry structures, making use of linear and non-linear numerical tools and assumed limit-state failure criteria. In order to obtain a quantification of the in-plane sliding shear failure criterion, a number of stone masonry wallets were built with weak mortar and were tested in the laboratory. Through the comparison of the obtained numerical predictions with the observed structural behaviour for selected cases of stone masonry “Basilica” churches, the validity of the applied simplified numerical process is demonstrated. It is shown that reasonable approximation of the observed performance of such structures can be obtained when the assumed failure criteria are realistic.
... It should be noted, however, that studies regarding historical stone arch bridges, although of paramount importance for their preservation as cultural assets, as well as in order to satisfy safety requirements, are quite difficult, as each stone arch bridge is unique in terms of the number of arches, the shape of the arch, the arch thickness, the thickness of the piers [2], the physical properties of the fill, the building materials used (mortars and stones), the manner of construction (especially taking into account that they were built following empirical rules [4]), the diversification between construction techniques from region to region and from era to era, the characteristics of the river (water velocity, level fluctuation, etc.), the environmental conditions of the area, and the loads it must carry (e.g., vehicles). Thus, stone bridges are usually studied on a case by case basis, each field contributing in its respective area of interest-architectural analysis, geometric documentation, structural analysis, materials characterization, nondestructive evaluation-while in many cases, a multidisciplinary approach is applied, incorporating and merging data from more than one field of interest [1,4,10,11]. It must be noted that in recent years, a successful effort has been made in grouping and evaluating selected stone arch bridges, with parametric analysis providing useful and crucial information [2]. ...
The sustainable preservation of monuments requires the use of performing materials which are at the same time compatible with the monument’s historical building materials to ensure structural integrity, adequate performance of the structure in earthquake stresses, and resilience of both restoration and historical materials. This is especially true for cultural heritage assets that have experienced major destruction, demanding extensive reconstruction. The Plaka Bridge in Epirus, Greece, partially collapsed after a heavy rainfall in 2015. It was a supreme example of traditional stone bridge architecture of the region and an important landmark. In the present study, a potential restoration stone from a nearby quarry was examined in terms of compatibility in relation to the dominant historical building stone of the bridge, as well as in terms of mechanical performance, through a variety of in lab techniques. In addition, criteria were set for restoration mortars, taking into account the characteristics of the historical materials, as well as the environment of the bridge. The results of the study regarding the restoration stone and mortars are presented and assessed, in order to select the most appropriate restoration materials for Plaka Bridge in its upcoming restoration, aiming to enhance the overall resilience of the structure.
... However, for both models, the out-of-plane stiffness of the model is underestimated. The reason for this finding, as highlighted in (Manos et al., 2016) for similar bridge types in Greece, may lie in the anisotropic behavior of the bridge's masonry, which is not taken into account in the model. ...
This paper describes the model updating procedure implemented in NOSA-ITACA, a finite-element code for the structural analysis of masonry constructions of historical interest. The procedure, aimed at matching experimental frequencies and mode shapes, allows fine-tuning calculation of the free parameters in the model. The numerical method is briefly described, and some issues related to its robustness are addressed. The procedure is then applied to a simple case study and two historical structures in Tuscany, the Clock Tower in Lucca and the Maddalena bridge in Borgo a Mozzano.
... These structural elements behave quite satisfactorily for the vertical gravitational forces. However, they sustain heavy damage when they are subjected to earthquake forces generated from strong ground motions ( [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]). This is the main objective of the current investigation. ...
... In what follows selective results are presented from an extensive study, which focused on old stone masonry bridges that are located mainly in the prefectures of Western Macedonia and Ipiros in Greece ( [1], [2] , [3] and [27]). These bridges are examples of outstanding stonemasonry construction that was dominant for a long period in these parts of Greece. ...
... On the contrary, their size spans from 8m to 40m when a single arch is employed (Konitsa) or over 70m for multi-arch structures. More information on the geometry, construction characteristics and mechanical properties of the employed materials are given by Manos et al. (2016) [1]. Today, these structures have retain but only a small part of this primary function, as new roads and bridges have been built to facilitate the contemporary transportation needs. ...
... On the contrary, their size spans from 8m to 40m when a single arch is employed (Konitsa) or over 70m for multi-arch structures. More information on the geometry, construction characteristics and mechanical properties of the employed materials are given by Manos et al. (2016) [1]. Today, these structures have retain but only a small part of this primary function, as new roads and bridges have been built to facilitate the contemporary transportation needs. ...
