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![(a) Crustal section with earthquake hypocenter depths and location of three great earthquakes along the MHT in India [17]. (b) Lithospheric model of the HMS and the TP (text for discussion).](publication/349854282/figure/fig8/AS:998539282903067@1615081725991/a-Crustal-section-with-earthquake-hypocenter-depths-and-location-of-three-great.png)
(a) Crustal section with earthquake hypocenter depths and location of three great earthquakes along the MHT in India [17]. (b) Lithospheric model of the HMS and the TP (text for discussion).
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![Figure 3: Bouguer gravity map of the TP (from [21]). White lines show...](publication/349854282/figure/fig1/AS:998539282903040@1615081725010/Bouguer-gravity-map-of-the-TP-from-21-White-lines-show-the-location-of-the_Q320.jpg)
The Himalayan Mountain System (HMS) and the Tibetan Plateau (TP) represent an active mountain belt, with continent-continent collision. Geological and geophysical (seismological modeling, seismic reflection, and gravity) data is reviewed herein for an overview of the lithospheric deformation and active tectonics of this orogen. Shallow crustal defo...
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In this paper, we propose a method for the analysis of tectonic movement and crustal deformation by using GNSS baseline length change rates or baseline linear strain rates. The method is applied to daily coordinate solutions of continuous GNSS stations of the Crustal Movement Observation Network of China (CMONOC). The results show that: (a) The bas...
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... However, due to the thicker lithosphere and dynamic orogenic setting of our study area, we took the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary as the base of our model. Based on available estimates, a 70 km thick crust with a variably 150-250 km thick continental lithosphere was assumed to accommodate its dynamic uncertainty (Li and Mashele 2009;Kumar et al. 2022;Jadoon et al 2021). The crust is assumed to consist of a 25 km thick upper crust (including HPL) and a 45 km thick lower crust. ...
The Himalaya, Kohistan, and Karakoram ranges comprise Proterozoic to Cenozoic crystalline complexes exposed in northern Pakistan. Numerous hot springs in the area indicate high subsurface temperatures, prompting a need to evaluate the local contribution of radiogenic heat to the general orogenic-related elevated geothermal gradients.
The current study employed a portable gamma spectrometer to estimate the in-situ
radiogenic heat production in the Nanga Parbat Massif, Kohistan–Ladakh batholith,
and the Karakoram batholith. Heat production in the Nanga Parbat Massif is high,
with a range from 0.2 to 10.8 µWm−3 and mean values of 4.6±2.5 and 5.9±1.9 µWm−3
for gneisses and granites, respectively. By contrast, the heat production is low
in the Kohistan–Ladakh batholith, ranging from 0.1 to 3.1 µWm−3, with the highest
mean of 2.0±0.5 µWm−3 in granites. The Karakoram batholith shows a large variation in heat production, with values ranging from 0.4 to 20.3 µWm−3 and the highest
mean of 8.4±8.3 µWm−3 in granites. The in-situ radiogenic heat production values vary
in diferent ranges and represent considerably higher values than those previously
used for the thermal modeling of Himalaya. A conductive 1D thermal model suggests
93–108 °C hotter geotherms, respectively, at 10 and 20 km depths due to the thick
heat-producing layer in the upper crust, resulting in a surface heat fow of 103 mWm−2.
The present study provides frst-order radiogenic heat production constraints for developing a thermal model for geothermal assessment.
... The 2300 km long Himalayan orogenic belt, extending from Afghanistan in the west to Burma in the east, evolved as a result of the Cenozoic continent-continent collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates (Jan and Asif, 1981;Patriat and Achache, 1984;Yin, 2006;White and Lister, 2012;Ghose et al., 2013;Jadoon et al., 2021;Yuan et al., 2022). The tectonostratigraphic framework of the India-Eurasia suture is a collage of remnants of Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere and syn-orogenic basins (Beck et al., 1995;Khan et al., 2007). ...
... The Himalayas, including the Tibetan Plateau (TP), portray an active mountain range, with intercontinental collision. Jadoon et al. (2021) reviewed the geological and geophysical data for studying lithospheric deformation and active tectonics of this orogen. Shallow crustal deformation with the influence of thrusting along the margins of the Tibetan Plateau was elucidated with routine faulting in the center and strike-slip deformation with the lateral adaptation of blocks, over a wedge of ductile deformation. ...
The Himalayan mountain range is sub-divided into four principal tectonic zones, from south to north. These are the Sub-Himalaya, the Lesser Himalaya, the Higher Himalayan Crystallines, and the Tethyan Himalaya. The Sub-Himalaya, also known as the Shiwalik Range (250–800 m high), rises above the Indo-Gangetic Plains along the Main Frontal Thrust. The Higher Himalayas, also known as the Central Crystalline zone, are comprised of ductile deformed metamorphic rocks and mark the axis of orogenic uplift. Mica schist, quartzite, paragneiss, migmatite, and leucogranite bodies characterize this uppermost Himalayan zone. Corresponding mineral assemblages are dominated by biotite to sillimanite, representing greenschist to amphibolite facies deformation. The Higher Himalayan Crystalline rocks have imbricated thrust sheets, with the grade of metamorphism increasing from the Chail Group to the Vaikrita Group. The Chail Group consists of a metamorphosed sequence of greenschist facies including phyllites, phyllitic quartzite, psammitic schists, orthoquartzites, arkose, chlorite schist limestones, and metabasic rocks amphibolites. The Sub-Himalaya range consists predominantly of Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and is bounded to the north by northward dipping Main Boundary Thrust, separating it from the overlying Lesser Himalaya. The Lesser Himalayan Range, in general, is quite rugged and higher than 2500 m, however, in the Kashmir Valley (Northwestern Himalaya), the Pir Panjal Range rises to above 3500 m. The Lesser Himalayas consists of Precambrian and Cambrian sequences of the Damtha, Tejam, Jaunsar–Garhwal, and Mussoorie Group in Garhwal region of the western Himalaya. The Mussoorie Group is represented by a persistent horizon of conglomerate intercalated with graywackes and siltstones at the base, which pass into carbonaceous slates and varicolored limestone. This succession is followed stratigraphically by carbonate-limestone, marl, slate, dolomite horizon in the middle and shale, conglomerate interbedded with phosphatic carbonaceous–pyritous slates, black limestone, and pyritous and felspathic quartzite in the upper portion. The Tethyan Himalayas consist of thick, 10–17 km, marine sediments that were deposited on the continental shelf and slope of the Indian continent. The Shiwalik zone consists of clastic sediments that were produced by the uplift and subsequent erosion of the Himalayas and deposited by rivers. These rocks have been folded and faulted to produce the Shiwalik Hills that are at the foot of the great mountains. Sub-Himalayan rocks have been overthrust by the Lesser Himalayas along the Main Boundary Thrust Fault. It not only shows geological divisions within the mountain belt, but also structures and geologic relationships between rock types and structures.KeywordsDuars (Piedmonts)Geological features of HKHGeological mappingQuaternary depositionTectonic framework
... The western Himalayan Syntaxis in the India-Eurasia collision orogen is mainly composed of the Pamir-Hindu Kush region, Kohistan arc, and the Karakorum terrane ( Fig. 1; Yin and Harrison, 2000;Jadoon et al., 2021). The collision started in the early Cenozoic and is still ongoing with a convergence rate of 34 mm/yr near the western Himalayan Syntaxis (Molnar and Stock, 2009;DeMets et al., 2010). ...
The Pamir-Hindu Kush region at the western end of the Himalayan-Tibet orogen is one of the most active regions on the globe with strong seismicity and deformation and provides a window to evaluate continental collision linked to two intra-continental subduction zones with different polarities. The seismicity and seismic tomography data show a steep northward subducting slab beneath the Hindu Kush and southward subducting slab under the Pamir. Here, we collect seismic catalogue with 3988 earthquake events to compute seismicity images and waveform data from 926 earthquake events to invert focal mechanism solutions and stress field with a view to characterize the subducting slabs under the Pamir-Hindu Kush region. Our results define two distinct seismic zones: a steep one beneath the Hindu Kush and a broad one beneath the Pamir. Deep and intermediate-depth earthquakes are mainly distributed in the Hindu Kush region which is controlled by thrust faulting, whereas the Pamir is dominated by strike-slip stress regime with shallow and intermediate-depth earthquakes. The area where the maximum principal stress axis is vertical in the southern Pamir corresponds to the location of a high-conductivity low-velocity region that contributes to the seismogenic processes in this region. We interpret the two distinct seismic zones to represent a double-sided subduction system where the Hindu Kush zone represents the northward subduction of the Indian plate, and the Pamir zone shows southward subduction of the Eurasian plate. A transition fault is inferred in the region between the Hindu Kush and the Pamir which regulates the opposing directions of motion of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
... Kush, along the MBT in Pakistan, and intermittently along the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) (Jadoon et al., 2021) where active uplift of the Siwalik Ranges occurs along the entire mountain front (Lavé and Avouac, 2000). Active deformation in the Rann of Kutch is further documented close to the delta (Biswas, 2005). ...
How well do deep-sea sedimentary archives track erosion in upland sources, driven by climatic change or tectonic forcing? Located on the western edge of the South Asian monsoon’s influence, the Indus River system is particularly sensitive to variations in monsoon rainfall and thus provides a unique opportunity to estimate the nature of sedimentary signal propagation (i.e., recognizable pulses of sediment) through a large river basin under different climatic conditions. In this review we examine the impact that changing monsoon rainfall has had on NW Himalayan landscapes and its foreland since the middle Miocene. Rates of erosion are linked to summer monsoon rains over tectonic time scales, but patterns of erosion are more explicitly linked to tectonically-driven rock uplift. Positive feedback between rock uplift and orographic precipitation drives increased erosion and transport from the Lesser Himalaya since the Miocene. After 2 Ma, erosion increasingly shifted to the Inner Lesser Himalaya. As defined by a series of proxies, strong monsoon rainfall intervals broadly result in increased erosion and faster sediment transport together with increased chemical weathering, although the latter is further linked with global temperatures and to the degree of sediment recycling through the routing system. We estimate that during the Holocene, most sediment (67–89% of the total ~6000 km3 or 16.3 x 1012 t) delivered to the ocean was sourced from direct bedrock erosion through channel incision linked to higher discharge or from remobilized, recycled glacial sediment initially deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Post-LGM sediment is primarily stored within the delta plain and shelf clinoform systems. Over the last 14 kyr, average mass delivery rates (936–1404 Mt/y) are much higher than pre-damming estimates (pre-1940s; 250–300 Mt/y). To reconcile observations with pre-damming estimates, high sediment supply rates probably during strong monsoon intervals over the early Holocene are required. Long-term rates were high (182–273 Mt/y) during a strong middle Miocene monsoon interval. Quaternary Indus submarine fan sedimentation is limited to sea level lowstands, at which times shelf and delta sediment is eroded and reworked into deep water. As a result, and for at least the past 2–3 m.y., most sediment delivered to the Indus submarine fan has initially been eroded during strong summer monsoon intervals but deposited under weak monsoon intervals. During the most recent sea level lowstand, only ~24% of sediment deposited in the fan was derived from synchronous onshore bedrock erosion, with the remaining accounted for by recycled terrace, floodplain and the shelf clinoform system sediment. Variations in monsoon intensity over the last glacial cycle strongly impact the locus of onshore erosion, with increased relative Himalayan erosion during times of strong, wet monsoon intervals and increased Karakoram erosion during drier glacial intervals.
