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It is crucial to replicate or mimic the human digestive system conditions closely in model systems to have the food digestion-related data as accurate as possible. Thus, the data obtained could contribute to studies like those on the relationship between health and nutrition. This review aims to express the human digestion system’s role in food dig...
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... stomach wall consists of three layers of smooth muscle; longitudinal, circular, and oblique layers (Fig. 2). This combination of muscles lets the stomach not only push but mix and grind so the ingested meal can disintegrate into smaller particles. Gastric motility (Fig. 3a) can be defined as the contractions or relaxations of the smooth muscles in the stomach wall to coordinate the gastric accommodation, gastric mixing and emptying through antral contraction waves, and migrating motor complexes. ( Brandstaeter et al., 2019). Gastric accommodation is the expansion of the stomach, especially in the proximal ...
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... small contraction wave that produces slight indentations on the stomach wall starts in the upper part and slowly moves down toward the pyloric sphincter (Fig. 3a). Backward waves sweep back from the pyloric sphincter through the antrum. These contractions cause a pressure buildup and a retropulsive backflow in the antrum region (Chen et al., 2011). This combination of back and forth flow causes mixing, grinding, and erosion of food ...
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... motor activities observed in the small intestine are segmenting and peristaltic contractions that provide mixing and transport of chyme (Fig. 3b). Segmenting contractions, which are the predominant motor action, mix and separate the intestinal chyme. A short segment of the intestinal wall (<1-2 cm) contracts and constricts the lumen to divide its Boland et al., 2014;Rogers, 2011). Peristaltic contraction is an advancing wave of contraction that can propel the chyme at a rate of ...
Citations
... AFB1 is known to be absorbed in the duodenum, immediately after the stomach [27]. The human digestive system exhibits varying pH conditions in specific regions: the mouth (pH 5-7), stomach (pH 1-3), small intestine (pH 6-7.5), and large intestine (pH 5-7) [28]. These pH levels can directly influence the interaction between bran and mycotoxins. ...
... These results provide insight into the potential of bran to reduce the bioavailability of AFB1. After ingestion, the volume of bolus increases in the gastrointestinal tract due to the secretion of biofluids in various parts of the digestive system [28]. The results therefore suggest that the AFB1-bran complex is stable despite the increasing volume in the gastrointestinal tract, thus preventing the absorption of AFB1 and consequently increasing its excretion. ...
Mycotoxins, especially aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FMB1), are common contaminants in cereal-based foods. Instances of contamination are predicted to increase due to the current challenges induced by climate change. Despite the health benefits of whole grains, the presence of mycotoxins in bran remains a concern. Nonetheless, previous research indicates that wheat bran can adsorb mutagens. Therefore, this study investigated the capacity of maize, wheat, and oat brans to adsorb AFB1 and FMB1 under varying in vitro conditions, including pH, binding time, temperature, particle size, and the amount of bran utilized. Maize bran demonstrated a high AFB1 adsorption capacity (>78%) compared to wheat and oat brans. However, FMB1 was not adsorbed by the brans, possibly due to its hydrophilic nature. Lower temperature (≤25 °C) enhanced AFB1 adsorption efficacy in wheat and oat bran, while for maize bran, the highest adsorption occurred at 37 °C. A linear model following Henry’s law best explained AFB1 adsorption by the brans. Further studies identified the pericarp layer of bran as the primary site of AFB1 adsorption, with the initial liquid volume being a critical factor. The study concludes that bran could potentially act as an effective bioadsorbent. Further research is essential to confirm the adsorption efficacy and the bioavailability of AFB1 through in vivo experiments.
... One emerging experimental technique involves developing realistic in vitro gastric models, which have been well reviewed in the literature. 8,9 To date, there are still no experimental studies on gastric digestion under reduced gravity, mainly because experiments under reduced gravity are extremely difficult and expensive. Even with a drop tower or reduced-gravity aircraft, weightless conditions can only be achieved for a few seconds, which is far from the timescale required for real digestion. ...
Gravitational conditions in space diverge significantly from those experienced on Earth, and these alterations may have significant effects on gastric digestion, ultimately affecting the health of astronauts. To understand these effects, the behavior of mixing and emptying in the human stomach under both reduced and normal gravity is investigated numerically. The solver utilized in this study is developed based on the open-source toolbox OpenFOAM. The gastric contents consist of water and a soluble food bolus characterized by a density of 1100 kg m−3, viscosity of 10−5 m2 s−1, and diffusivity of 3.09 × 10−9 m2 s−1. The effects of gravity magnitude, initial food bolus location, and terminal antral contractions (TACs) are studied. The numerical results demonstrate that the food retention rate can be increased by up to ∼20% in the initial 6 min as normal gravity is reduced to zero gravity. The numerical results support that gravity favors the emptying of the food through the pylorus. The distributions of food concentrations and pH are also significantly influenced by the gravity condition. Under zero gravity conditions, food in the distal stomach is quickly emptied due to the strong flow dynamics in the antrum. A delay of approximately 6 min is observed when the food bolus is initially located in the proximal stomach. TACs efficiently enhance the emptying and mixing of the food in the distal stomach, while their effects on the proximal stomach are marginal.
... The fundus, body (proximal and distal corpus), and antrum are the three main sections of the stomach. The fundus is a muscular bag that relaxes upon food intake to promote gastric accommodation and stores the gas that is produced during digestion [11,12]. The corpus acts as a reservoir, which accommodates incoming food until the chymus (fluidized mixture consisting of ingested food particles ground by the digestive juice) from the antrum is propelled towards the pyloric sphincter [13][14][15]. ...
... The corpus acts as a reservoir, which accommodates incoming food until the chymus (fluidized mixture consisting of ingested food particles ground by the digestive juice) from the antrum is propelled towards the pyloric sphincter [13][14][15]. The antrum is the principal site for grinding and functions as a gastric pump that propagates the chymus to the pylorus via peristaltic waves [11,12]. The pyloric sphincter is responsible for the flow of the chymus in the duodenum through peristaltic movements. ...
... While the average volume of an empty human stomach is about 25-50 mL, the volume increases to 1-1.5 L after an average meal. Gastric pH in the fasted state varies between 1 and 3; it rises up to 5.5-7 during the ingestion of the meal, decreases to 3-4 when it is half-empty, and returns to the basal value after the stomach is fully empty [12]. The stomach emptying rate varies depending on the type and components of food ingested, while liquids and solids can have different emptying mechanisms [11]. ...
Gastroretentive drug delivery systems (GRDDSs) have gained substantial attention in the last 20 years due to their ability to retain the drug in the stomach for an extended time, thus promoting an extended release and high bioavailability for a broad range of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) that are pH-sensitive and/or have a narrow absorption window. The currently existing GRDDSs include floating, expanding, mucoadhesive, magnetic, raft-forming, ion-exchanging, and high-density systems. Although there are seven types of systems, the main focus is on floating, expanding, and mucoadhesive systems produced by various techniques, 3D printing being one of the most revolutionary and currently studied ones. This review assesses the newest production technologies and briefly describes the in vitro and in vivo evaluation methods, with the aim of providing a better overall understanding of GRDDSs as a novel emerging strategy for targeted drug delivery.
... This abrupt change can damage membranes and alter the structure of proteins and DNA, among others, thus compromising microbial viability [11]. In addition, the cells are exposed to the action of pancreatic secretions, mainly composed of digestive enzymes such as proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin), amylases, and lipases [96]. The digestive enzymes have been shown to reduce the adhesion to intestinal mucus of probiotic strains [97]; however, the effect of pancreatic secretions on microbial viability has not been studied in depth. ...
... Indeed, composition of BAs is strongly affected by gut bacteria, and reciprocally, they are the major regulators of shape and composition of gut microbiota [100]. The main reaction of BA metabolism is the hydrolysis of the amide bond to release the free bile acid plus the amino acid, reaction performed by microbial enzymes collectively called bile salt hydrolase (BSH) [96]. ...
In recent years, more and more scientific community, food producers, and food industry show increased interest in functional foods containing probiotics, which is a big challenge. The consumption of probiotics in the context of a balanced diet through the consumption of functional foods or through the intake of pharmaceutical preparations has proven to contribute to the improvement of human health, even contributing to the prevention of diseases. In order for probiotics to be considered suitable for consumption, they must contain a minimum concentration of viable cells, namely, at least 10⁷ colony forming units of beneficial microbes per gram. Ensuring the viability of bacterial cells until the moment of consumption is the overriding priority of functional probiotic food manufacturers. Probiotic bacteria are subject to stress conditions not only during food manufacturing but also during gastrointestinal passage, which limit or even compromise their functionality. This paper first examines all the stressful conditions faced by probiotic cells in their production stages and related to the conditions present in the bioreactor fermentation and drying processes as well as factors related to the food matrix and storage. The stress situations faced by probiotic microorganisms during the gastrointestinal transit especially during stomach and intestinal residence are also analyzed. In order to understand the adaptation mechanisms of probiotic bacteria to gastrointestinal stress, intrinsic and adaptive mechanisms identified in probiotic strains in response to acid stress and to bile and bile acid stress are analyzed. In addition, improvement strategies for multiple stress tolerance of lactic acid bacteria through directions dealing with stress, accumulation of metabolites, use of protectants, and regulation of technological parameters are examined. Finally, the definition of postbiotics, inanimate microorganisms and/or their components conferring health benefits, is also introduced. Postbiotics include cell lysates, enzymes, and cell wall fragments derived from probiotic bacteria and may represent an alternative to the use of probiotics, when they do not tolerate stressful conditions.
... Enzymes present in the small intestine facilitate the process of food decomposition into its constituent parts (Sensoy ,2021).Prior studies on the camel's small intestine have revealed four distinct layers: the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis, and the serosa. The lamina mucosa con-stituted a component of the tunica mucosa, among two other layers. ...
... First and foremost, the mouth is where the process of digestion begins. Chewing, or mastication, breaks down food into smaller particles, facilitating digestion and nutrient absorption further along the digestive tract [279]. Additionally, the mouth contains salivary glands that produce saliva, which not only moistens food to aid in swallowing but also contains enzymes that initiate the breakdown of carbohydrates (Pedersen et al. [280]). ...
Food production is a complex matter, affecting people's lives, organizations' profits, and the well-being of the whole planet, and has multifaceted ethical considerations surrounding its production, distribution, and consumption. This paper addresses the pressing need to confront ethical challenges within the food system, encompassing issues such as environmental sustainability, food security, and individual food choices for better oral and systemic health of all individuals around the globe. From agricultural practices to global trade and food waste, ethical implications are addressed across various domains, highlighting the interconnectedness of ethical decision-making in the food industry. Central themes explored include the ethical dimensions of food production methods, the impact of global trade on food ethics, and the role of individuals in making ethically informed food choices. Additionally, this paper considers the spiritual and physical significance of food, particularly through the lens of oral health as a gateway to holistic well-being. Recognizing the complexity of the food and mouth ecosystem, this paper calls for serious interventions in legislation and economics to promote ethical protocols and techniques for sustainability reasons. It emphasizes the importance of ethical considerations in food safety management systems, regulatory frameworks, and quality standards. Moreover, this paper underlines the need for a comprehensive approach to address ethical dilemmas and moral values inherent in the food industry and oral health policies, adopting the precautionary principle and ethical decision-making frameworks. This article finally aims to serve as a call to action for stakeholders across the food industry and the healthcare sector, to prioritize ethical practices, promote transparency, rearrange economic parameters, and work towards a more sustainable and equitable food system for inner and outer oral and systemic health and human sustainability for all.
... The value of k can be calculated from the slope of the linear least squares fit of ln (1 − C t /C ∞ ) to t. The rice starch digestibility, as depicted in Figure 10A, does not follow the expected curve, possibly due to the presence of small non-free starch particles (<1-2 mm) in the chyme entering the intestine [40] and of glycosidase attached to the chyme's surface, which hydrolyze the non-free starch. This hydrolysis process is affected by starch particle size, enzyme activity, and digestion rate, so it does not show the typical trend of starch hydrolysis. ...
... According to Shang et al. [23], high-viscosity dietary fiber increases the flow resistance of the chyme, making it more likely to resist extrusion from the duodenum and mechanical force applied to the inner wall of the stomach when passing through the pylorus, which in turn delays gastric emptying. There were statistically significant (p < 0.05) differences in hunger, DE, and PFC among the groups with the prolongation of digestion time, which may be attributed to the rapidly hydrating konjac flour and reaching its final viscosity within a short time, exhibiting shear-thinning behavior by gastric extrusion and The rice starch digestibility, as depicted in Figure 10A, does not follow the expected curve, possibly due to the presence of small non-free starch particles (<1-2 mm) in the chyme entering the intestine [40] and of glycosidase attached to the chyme's surface, which hydrolyze the non-free starch. This hydrolysis process is affected by starch particle size, enzyme activity, and digestion rate, so it does not show the typical trend of starch hydrolysis. ...
The physical characteristics of chyme during gastrointestinal digestion are considered to significantly affect nutrient digestion and absorption (such as glucose diffusion), which has an impact on postprandial satiety. The present study aims to analyze the hydration rate (HR) and rheological properties of deacetylated konjac glucomannan (DKGM) at different degrees and then explore their effects on rice texture, digestive properties, and the subjects’ post-meal appetite. The present results show that, as the deacetylation degree (DD) of KGM increased, the intersection point of the viscoelastic modulus shifted to a high shear rate frequency, and as the swelling time of the DKGM was prolonged, its HR decreased significantly. The results of the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion tests show that the hardness and chewability of the rice in the fast-hydration group (MK1) were remarkably reduced. In contrast, the slow-hydration group (MK5) exhibited an outstanding ability to resist digestion. The kinetics of starch hydrolysis revealed that the HR of the rice in the fast-hydration group was 1.8 times faster than that of the slow-hydration group. Moreover, it was found that the subjects’ appetite after the meal was highly related to the HR of the MK. Their hunger (p < 0.001), desire to eat (p < 0.001), and prospective food consumption (p < 0.001) were significantly inhibited in the slow-hydration group (MK5) compared to the control. This study explored the nutritional effects of the hydration properties derived from the DKGM, which may contribute to modifying the high glycemic index food and provide ideas for the fabrication of food with enhanced satiating capacity.
... Identification of Indigenous Lactobacillus fermentum by 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing Isolated from Two Different Ecosystems... concentrations of bile were prepared 3%, 4% and 5% in MRS agar medium. The choice of bile concentration for (0.4%) was based on its physiological concentration in the duodenum (Sensoy, 2021). ...
Background: The consumption of functional ferments that have functional characteristic sand contributes enormously to the safety and quality of food by offering several nutritional, technological and health properties. Lactobacillus fermentum (Lb. fermentum) is a Gram-positive bacterium belonging to the genus Lactobacillus and many are said to have the effect of preventing gastro-intestinal infections and improving immunological response. Additionally, Lb. fermentum produces diverse and potent antimicrobial peptides which can be applied as alternatives to antibiotics. Methods: In this study, samples were isolated from two different ecological niches, the first was feces of newborn infants (0-3 months) and the second from bee’s intestine, from south of Algeria : Ghardaïa 32°29'00" North, 3°41'00" East. Two indigenous lactic acid bacteria were isolated and evaluated for their probiotic properties. The isolate identification by sequencing 16S r DNA was performed using the universal primers 27F and 1492R. The NCBI Gen Bank database was used to have similarity of species. Result: The cultures showed good survival in simulated transit fluids as well as high acid and bile tolerance. The isolates also demonstrated antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, the inhibition zone was measured between 10 mm and 20 mm of diameter respectively. Comparing the sequences of the isolates with the Gen Bank database (NCBI), a high percentage with species of Lactobacillus fermentum was shown.
... Folate bioaccessibility is calculated by dividing the amount of soluble folate present in the intestinal digesta (bioaccessible folate) by the amount of folate present in the original food matrices. Several in vitro digestion models have been used for investigating food digestion, including static models, dynamic models, semi-dynamic models, and in silico models (Le Feunteun et al., 2021;Sensoy, 2021). However, to date, only dynamic and static models have been applied to study folate bioaccessibility. ...
The incomplete absorption of dietary folate makes it crucial to understand how food matrices affect folate bioaccessibility. Bioavailability encompasses bioaccessibility, which depicts the proportion that is liberated from the food matrix during digestion and becomes available for absorption. Bioavailability studies are expensive and difficult to control, whereas bioaccessibility studies utilize in vitro digestion models to parameterize the complex digestion, allowing the evaluation of the effect of food matrices on bioaccessibility. This review covers the folate contents in various food matrices, the methods used to determine and the factors affecting folate bioaccessibility, and the advances and challenges in understanding how food matrices affect folate bioaccessibility. The methods for determining bioaccessibility have been improved in the last decade. Current research shows that food matrices modulate folate bioaccessibility by affecting the liberation and stability of folate during digestion but do not provide enough information about folate and food component interactions at the molecular level. In addition, information on folate interconversion and degradation during digestion is scant, hindering our understanding of the impact of food matrices on folate stability. Moreover, the role of conjugase inhibitors should not be neglected when evaluating the nutritional value of food folates. Due to the complexity of food digestion, holistic methods should be applied to investigate bioaccessibility. By synthesizing the current state of knowledge on this topic, this review highlights the lack of in‐depth understanding of the mechanisms of how food matrices modulate folate bioaccessibility and provides insights into potential strategies for accurate evaluation of the nutritional value of dietary folate.
... Probiotic bacteria must survive the gastrointestinal tract, tolerate bile, acids, and stomach enzymes, as well as colonise the intestinal epithelium (Lian et al., 2003;Ranadheera et al., 2012;Duque et al., 2021). Currently, Lactobacillus is the most common probiotic bacteria (Shehata et al., 2016), but it decreases during storage and in the digestive system (Sensoy et al., 2021). Therefore, there is a need to find an alternative to improve its viability. ...
Synbiotic yogurt products can be developed using mangrove apple extract inulin as a prebiotic in combination with Lactobacillus plantarum to form a probiotic. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the optimal concentrations of inulin extracted from mangrove apple for the viability of L. plantarum as a synbiotic in vitro and its antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The samples were divided into 5 groups and 4 replicates consisting of different concentrations of inulin extracted from mangrove apple (IEMA) at 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12% w/v, which was combined with L. plantarum as a synbiotic. The result showed that the addition of IEMA with different concentrations had a significant effect (p<0.05) on the viability of L. plantarum in gastric juice and bile salt after 5 h of exposure. The total bacteria significantly decreased (p<0.05) after 4 weeks of storage period. The antibacterial activity of IEMA at concentrations of 9% and 12% was higher than other treatments as demonstrated by p<0.05. IEMA increased the viability with the concentration of 9% being the most effective (p<0.05) on acid, bile salt, resistance, and storage periods. Based on the results, IEMA can also inhibit the growth of S. aureus.
