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Zone diameter interpretive standards chart for the determination of antibiotic sen- sitivity and resistance status by the Disk Diffusion method 15)
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Objectives: Pharmaceutical workers involved with the production of antimicrobial drugs are exposed to various antimicrobial chemicals in different steps of manufacturing such as, grinding, sieving, compression, granulation, mixing, filling, etc. These exposures may lead them to the development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) of bacteria. Scientific...
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Context 1
... the end of culture, the diameters of the zones of inhibition were measure to the near- est whole millimeter as recommended by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards 15) . The sensitivity status of bacteria, defined as susceptible (S) (a status in which the growth of the bacteria is inhib- ited in vitro by the applied concentration of the anti- biotic and the antibiotic dose is therapeutically effec- tive), moderately susceptible (M) (bacterial response to the drug is lower, and the drug may fail to achieve a therapeutic response) and resistant (R) (bacteria are not responsive to the given antibiotic, which clearly indicates therapeutic failure) to antibiotics, was deter- mined according to the specifications of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) 14−16) which are listed in Table 1. ...
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Citations
... After 18 h of incubation at 37°C, the width of the inhibition zone was measured in millimeters (mm) to determine whether the bacteria were sensitive (S), intermediate (I), or resistant (R) to the antibiotics used as reference drugs. This obtained measurement was then compared to a standard antibiotics' sensitivity chart to determine the bacteria's sensitivity level [29]. ...
In the face of the escalating global antibiotic resistance crisis, exploring alternative therapeutic avenues has become imperative. This study investigates the antibacterial potential of Punica granatum and Rhamnus sp. extracts from Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Antibacterial activities were evaluated against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Ente-rococcus faecalis using well diffusion, MIC, and MBC assays. The antibacterial tests of both plants revealed that ethanolic extracts demonstrate superior activity compared to chloroform extracts. Also, Enterococcus faecalis proves most susceptible (up to 33 mm inhibition), while Escherichia coli exhibits notable resistance. Although Escherichia coli was the most resistant organism using MIC, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most susceptible strain with MIC less than 12.5 mg/mL. The Punica granatum extracts and Rhamnus sp. chloroformed extract display primarily bactericidal effects, whereas the ethanolic extract of Rhamnus sp. has a mainly bacteriostatic effect. Phytochemical analysis reveals a rich composition, including different well-known antimicrobial chemical classes. These findings underscore the potent antibacterial activity of both plants against diverse bacterial strains. The study emphasizes the need for further research into their phytochemical characterization and mechanistic insights.
... The release of drugs from the gel formulations was slower than that from niosomes and SLNs, likely due to the presence of a polymer matrix created by poloxamer in the gel formulation (Fig. 7). Table 3 and Fig. 9. Measuring the inhibition zone of diameter expressed the sensitivity of the bacteria, which defines the bacteria as resistant (≤ 9 mm), moderately sensitive (10-11 mm), or sensitive (≥ 12 mm) to the antibiotics [31]. Statistical analysis of the results indicated that clindamycin was released from the noisome formulations including clindamycin-loaded niosomes and niosomal gel within 24 h and significantly affected both S. aureus and Lactobacillus casei, in comparison with the positive control. ...
Background
Periodontal diseases may benefit more from topical treatments with nanoparticles rather than systemic treatments due to advantages such as higher stability and controlled release profile. This study investigated the preparation and characterization of thermosensitive gel formulations containing clindamycin-loaded niosomes and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) loaded with fluconazole (FLZ), as well as their in vitro antibacterial and antifungal effects in the treatment of common microorganisms that cause periodontal diseases.
Methods
This study loaded niosomes and SLNs with clindamycin and FLZ, respectively, and assessed their loading efficiency, particle size, and zeta potential. The particles were characterized using a variety of methods such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Thermosensitive gels were formulated by combining these particles and their viscosity, gelation temperature, in-vitro release profile, as well as antibacterial and antifungal effects were evaluated.
Results
Both types of these nanoparticles were found to be spherical (TEM) with a mean particle size of 243.03 nm in niosomes and 171.97 nm in SLNs (DLS), and respective zeta potentials of -23.3 and -15. The loading rate was 98% in niosomes and 51% in SLNs. The release profiles of niosomal formulations were slower than those of the SLNs. Both formulations allowed the release of the drug by first-order kinetic. Additionally, the gel formulation presented a slower release of both drugs compared to niosomes and SLNs suspensions.
Conclusion
Thermosensitive gels containing clindamycin-loaded niosomes and/or FLZ-SLNs were found to effectively fight the periodontitis-causing bacteria and fungi.
... The different concentrations (0.2 mg/L, 0.4 mg/L, and 0.6 mg/L) of the extract were impregnated unto paper disk of 4 mm diameter and placed in a Mueller Hintor Agar plate seeded with Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtillus, and Salmonella typhi using sterile forceps. The plates were then incubated for 18-24 hours and the diameter of the zones of inhibition around the disc were measured and recorded to nearest mm [34,35]. In this study, deionised water was used as the Control as reported by Matar et al. [36] and Yousif et al. [37]. ...
Schiff base and the metal derivatives have been utilized in numerous areas of the economy. Synthesis and antibacterial activities of Cd (II), Cr (VI), Cu (II), and Fe (III) complexes of Schiff bases were evaluated in this work. Complexes synthesized were Bis(1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-Phenyl acetyl 5-pyrazolone)Cadmium (II) (Cd(HPMPP)2), Tris(1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-benzoyl-5-pyrazolone)Iron(III)(Fe(HPMBP)3), Bis(1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-phenylacetyl-5-pyrazolone)Copper (II) (Cu(HPMPP)2), Hexakis(1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-palmitoyl-5-pyrazolone)Chromium (VI) (Cr(HPMPP)6), and Tris(1-phenyl-3-methyl-4-palmitoyl-5-pyrazolone)Iron (III) (Fe(HPMPP)3). The physical state, colour, and melting point of these complexes were determined using appropriate analytical techniques. Results showed that all the complexes were crystalline in nature; their colours were variable, while their melting points were sharp. The solubility of these complexes in deionized water, acetone, methanol, and ethanol was also carried out. The outcome revealed that all the metal complexes were insoluble in deionized water, Cr(HPMPP)6 was soluble in acetone, methanol, and ethanol. However, the solubility of other metal complexes in the organic solvents used was variable. The antibacterial activities of these metal complexes at different concentrations were also tested against distilled water, E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtillus, and S. typhi. The results showed that, antimicrobial activity of these complexes against distilled water was negative whereas, the bacterial growth of all the bacteria was inhibited by the complexes though at different rates. The inhibition rate of microorganisms was inversely proportional to the concentration of the complexes. The antibacterial activities of Cd(HPMPP)2 and Cr(HPMPP)6 were outstanding against the growth of all the bacteria. Thus, a proper processing of these complexes might result in excellent antibacterial drugs. However, more studies on the mode of action of these complexes against microorganisms and their toxicity should be done in order to establish their potentials for pharmaceutical applications.
... The results of in vitro antibacterial activity showed that; compound p1 had the largest zones of inhibition and the highest antibacterial activity among all the other compounds. Moreover, all the synthesized compounds (p1-p4) showed larger inhibition zones (≥ 12mm) and higher antibacterial activities than benzylpenicillin against the Gram-negative Bacteria Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Salmonella abony ATCC 6017, which mean both of these Gramnegative strains are highly sensitive to the synthesized compounds (p1-p4) and these results agreed with the previous studies [29,30], as shown in Table (4) and Figure (4). The statistical results showed that; the antibacterial effects of compounds p1, p3 and p4 were significantly better than the antibacterial effect of benzylpenicillin on the Gram-negative strains Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Salmonella bony ATCC 6017. ...
Background: Benzylpenicillin is an antibiotic that possesses effectiveness mainly against gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. The carboxylic acid of beta-lactam is essential for its antibacterial activity. However, many prodrugs have been produced through the esterification of this carboxylic acid group, like Pivampicillin. Objective: To evaluate the antibacterial effects of Benzylpenicillin when the free carboxylic acid mask with different chemical groups of different polarity. Patients and Methods: Four Benzylpenicillin derivatives (compounds p1-p4) were chemically synthesized through the esterification of the carboxylic acid group with different groups of different polarity, and the antibacterial activities were examined by docking and bacteriological studies. Results: All the compounds showed different antibacterial results. The docking results showed that; the compound of the highest polarity (compound p1) has the best Binding energy. Also; The results of in vitro antibacterial activity showed that; compound p1 had the largest zones of inhibition and the highest antibacterial activity among all the other compounds. Conclusion: Masking the free carboxylic acid of benzylpenicillin with polar group will enhance the antibacterial activity.
... The results of in vitro antibacterial activity showed that; compound p1 had the largest zones of inhibition and the highest antibacterial activity among all the other compounds. Moreover, all the synthesized compounds (p1-p4) showed larger inhibition zones (≥ 12mm) and higher antibacterial activities than benzylpenicillin against the Gram-negative Bacteria Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Salmonella abony ATCC 6017, which mean both of these Gramnegative strains are highly sensitive to the synthesized compounds (p1-p4) and these results agreed with the previous studies [29,30], as shown in Table (4) and Figure (4). The statistical results showed that; the antibacterial effects of compounds p1, p3 and p4 were significantly better than the antibacterial effect of benzylpenicillin on the Gram-negative strains Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Salmonella bony ATCC 6017. ...
Background: Benzylpenicillin is an antibiotic that possesses effectiveness mainly against gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. The carboxylic acid of beta-lactam is essential for its antibacterial activity. However, many prodrugs have been produced through the esterification of this carboxylic acid group, like Pivampicillin. Objective: To evaluate the antibacterial effects of Benzylpenicillin when the free carboxylic acid mask with different chemical groups of different polarity. Patients and Methods: Four Benzylpenicillin derivatives (compounds p1-p4) were chemically synthesized through the esterification of the carboxylic acid group with different groups of different polarity, and the antibacterial activities were examined by docking and bacteriological studies. Results: All the compounds showed different antibacterial results. The docking results showed that; the compound of the highest polarity (compound p1) has the best Binding energy. Also; The results of in vitro antibacterial activity showed that; compound p1 had the largest zones of inhibition and the highest antibacterial activity among all the other compounds. Conclusion: Masking the free carboxylic acid of benzylpenicillin with polar group will enhance the antibacterial activity. Keywords: Beta lactam antibiotics, Benzylpenicillin, anti-bacterial activities, docking, esterification.
... The antibiotics used had different concentrations. Based on the statement by Sarker et al. (2014), the concentrations of the antibiotics were as follows: Ampicillin 30 μg/disk, Ciprofloxacin 15 μg/disk, Doxycycline 30 μg/disk, Tetracycline 30 μg/disk, Chloramphenicol 30 μg/disk, Co-Amoxiclav 10 μg/disk, Azithromycin 15 μg/disk, and Gentamicin 10 μg/disk. 2.7 Preparation of Liquid Media and Purification of Vibrio spp. ...
... According to Surjowardojo et al. (2015), the categories for the inhibition zone are divided into four: ≤5 mm diameter is categorized as weak, 6-10 mm diameter is moderate, 11-20 mm is strong, and ≥21 mm is very strong. Sarker et al. (2014) also provide a standard interpretative zone diameter chart for determining antibiotic sensitivity and resistance status using the disk diffusion method. ...
Vibrio spp. bacteria are aquatic bacteria that can be found in brackish water and estuaries, and they have opportunistic pathogenic properties. These bacteria are usually dominant in brackish and estuarine areas such as river mouths, rivers, ponds, and seas with salinities between 20-40 ppt and a temperature of 37°C. The aim of this research is to determine the susceptibility and sensitivity of Vibrio spp. bacteria to various types of antibiotics. The Vibrio spp. bacteria isolated in this study were obtained from barramundi fish (Lates calcarifer). If they are still sensitive, the growth of Vibrio spp. bacteria can be inhibited by antibiotic administration. The effectiveness of antibiotics against Vibrio spp. bacteria in barramundi fish was tested using eight types of antibiotics, namely Co-Amoxiclav, Gentamicin, Doxycycline, Tetracycline, Azithromycin, Chloramphenicol, Ciprofloxacin, and Ampicillin. Bacteria that are sensitive to specific types of antibiotics have larger inhibition zones. The measurement of inhibition zones was carried out using a caliper by measuring the vertical and horizontal diameters and then dividing by 2 to obtain the average. This average was compared to a standard interpretative zone diameter chart to determine antibiotic sensitivity and resistance status using the Disk Diffusion method. Tetracycline and Ampicillin antibiotics can inhibit or are resistant to Vibrio spp. bacteria with a percentage of 0.08%. Gentamicin has greater sensitivity compared to the other tested antibiotics. In this study, the Vibrio spp. obtained are still sensitive to certain types of antibiotics and resistant to Ampicillin.
... Sivanar Amirtham had shown activity against S. aureus (ATCC 29213) at higher concentrations of 15 mg/mL, 20 mg/mL, and 25 mg/mL with a ZOI of 12.3 ± 0.6 mm, 13.3 ± 1.5 mm, and 13.3 ± 1.2 mm, respectively. As per the CLSI standards, the resultant ZOI categorized the medicine under the sensitivity (≥ 12) region, when compared with the standard drug Vancomycin (30 μg/disk), commonly used for treating S. aureus infections 65 . Sivanar Amirtham had shown strong antibacterial activity in a dose-dependent manner from 2.5 to 25 mg/mL towards Methicillin-Resistant S. aureus (ATCC 43300), as the ZOI increased from 13.3 ± 1.2 to 20.7 ± 1.2 mm, correspondingly. ...
... Sivanar Amirtham showed the most significant activity against V. cholerae with the highest ZOI at 34.3 mm and the lowest at 21.3 mm. While comparing with the zone diameter of Azithromycin (≥ 18 for 15 μg/disk) and Ciprofloxacin (≥ 21 for 15 μg/disk) as per CLSI standards 65 , Sivanar Amirtham exhibited significant activity with higher ZOI. This confirmed that the formulation was sensitive like other antibiotics used to treat cholerae and would be a promising drug for efficient treatment against resistant strains also. ...
According to the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) data, antibiotic resistance escalates more challenges in treatment against communicable diseases worldwide. Henceforth, the use of combinational antimicrobial therapy and metal-conjugated phytoconstituents composites are considered as alternatives. The present study explored the efficacy of mercuric-sulfide-based metallopharmaceutical, Sivanar Amirtham for anti-bacterial, anti-tuberculosis, anti-HIV therapeutics and toxicity profile by haemolytic assay, first of its kind. The anti-bacterial study was performed against both gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29213), Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA: ATCC 43300), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA14) and Vibrio cholerae (MTCC 3905) by agar well diffusion assay, wherein the highest zone of inhibition was identified for MRSA (20.7 mm) and V. cholerae (34.3 mm) at 25 mg/mL. Furthermore, the anti-tuberculosis activity experimented by microtitre alamar blue assay against M. tuberculosis (ATCC 27294) demonstrated significant activity at the concentration range of 12.5–100 µg/mL. Additionally, the anti-HIV efficacy established by the syncytia inhibition method using C8166 cell lines infected with HIV-1IIIB, showed a significant therapeutic effect. The in-vitro toxicity assay proved Sivanar Amirtham to be non-haemolytic and haemocompatible. The physicochemical characterization studies revealed the nano-sized particles with different functional groups and the distinctive metal–mineral complex could be attributed to the multi-site targeting ability. The rationale evidence and scientific validation for the efficacy of Sivanar Amirtham ensures that it could be proposed as an alternative or adjuvant for both prophylactics and therapeutics to overcome HIV infection and antimicrobial resistance as well as the multi-drug resistance challenges.
... MIC assays were performed for organisms that demonstrated sensitivity to crude plant compounds based on the presence of zones of inhibition in the antimicrobial or antimycotic disk diffusion assays. The bacteria susceptibility guideline for disc diffusion assay which is (≤9 mm), moderately sensitive (10-11 mm), or sensitive (≥12 mm) was used to select the highest concentration for each extract 30 . The MTT [3-(4, 5dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide] serial microdilution assay was employed in this study because of its simplicity and the color reaction produced [31][32][33] . ...
... The negative control (DMSO) in all assays performed did not exhibit any inhibition. The susceptibility of bacteria to an extract was indicated by an inhibition zone diameter of 9 mm or more around the disc 30,37 . ...
Infectious diseases like bacterial, fungal, viral are the top killers of a third of the world population. Limited access to comprehensive treatment forces people to rely on herbal concoctions for treatment. Combretum farinosum Kunth and C. igneiflorum Rendón & R. Delgad. are two similar vine plant species that have insufficient scientific investigation. The purpose of the study is to determine the in vitro antimicrobial activity of crude extracts of different parts of Combretum igneiflorum (roots, stem, and leaves) and Combretum farinosum (roots, fruits, leaves, and stem) using petroleum ether, acetone, and ethanol-water. The crude extract was tested against food-borne pathogens. Twenty-seven crude extracts were prepared from C. igneiflorum (roots, stem, and leaves) and C. farinosum (roots, stem, leaves, and fruits) and screened for their antimicrobial activity against four Gram-positive bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus aureus methicillin resistant, Bacillus subtilis), four Gram-negative bacteria (Salmonella enteritidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri, and Escherichia coli B), and one fungus species (Candida albicans) using agar disc-diffusion, and microbroth dilution assays. Results show that crude extracts of both plants tested had broad antimicrobial activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of C. farinosum extract against tested bacteria ranged from 0.32 to 100 mg/ml, whereas C. igneiflorum extracts that showed antibacterial activity ranged from 2.5 to 75 mg/ml. Gram-positive bacteria tested were more susceptible to the extracts than gram-negative bacteria. Crude extracts of C. igneiflorum and C. farinosum have broad antimicrobial activity against the microbes tested. Keywords: Combretum farinosum Kunth, Combretum igneiflorum Rendón & R. Delgad. MTT, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC), Antifungal, Antibacterial.
... At the end of the incubation period of 18 h at 37 • C, the size of the colony inhibition zone was determined. The zone width was measured and compared against reference standards for each bacterium and antibiotic, and then bacterial strains were categorized into high, moderate, and low sensitivity for each antibiotic [45]. ...
... Most of the bacteria isolated from the three areas, especially those collected from residential areas, were resistant to ampicillin (average size of inhibition zone: 16.2 mm) ( Figure 3). On the other hand, most of the bacteria, especially those collected from the agricultural area, showed sensitivity to doxycycline and kanamycin (average size of inhibition zone: 25.2 mm and 26.9 mm, respectively) [45]. Results collectively indicated that most bacterial contaminants are most sensitive to doxycycline, intermediately sensitive to kanamycin, and least sensitive to neomycin disrupting protein synthesis in bacteria. ...
... In the current study, antibiotic resistance results collectively indicated the potential health risks of air conditioning dust bacterial contaminants to humans [67]. erage size of inhibition zone: 25.2 mm and 26.9 mm, respectively) [45]. Results collectively indicated that most bacterial contaminants are most sensitive to doxycycline, intermediately sensitive to kanamycin, and least sensitive to neomycin disrupting protein synthesis in bacteria. ...
High levels of potentially toxic metals and microbes in the atmosphere, especially indoor air, may severely threaten human health. Therefore, the concentration and associated health risks of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn), biological pollutants, and their risk to human health were assessed using air condition (AC) filter dust samples. Samples were collected from five locations representing agricultural, industrial, and residential settings of the Eastern Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The levels of trace metals varied considerably among sampling areas, with the highest levels of Cr and Cd recorded in the industrial area sites, followed by the agricultural and residential sites. The highest levels of Pb and Fe were found in the agricultural area sites, followed by the industrial and residential area sites. Among all the metals Cd, Cr, and Pb, showed a considerable health risk through a dermal pathway, and health risks for children from indoor dust exposure were higher compared to adults. Among the sites, the highest hazard quotient for these metals was found for Al-Qatif industrial area sites, and among the metals, it was the highest for Cd. The cancer risk from the metals contained in AC filter dust was negligible. Samples collected from agricultural and industrial area sites were substantially contaminated with bacteria and fungi, respectively. Bacterial contaminants were mostly Gram-negative, with considerable antibiotic resistance and hemolytic activity. Thus, indoor air quality assessed by AC filter dust depicted that the trace heavy metals and microorganisms could pose a considerable health risk for long-term exposure. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that AC filter dust could be a unique and reliable test sample for indoor environment assessment.
... National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS) guidelines were used to determine the resistance of the organisms to vancomycin, azithromycin, and doxycycline. Ampicillin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, streptomycin, and chloramphenicol susceptibility was measured using methodology from published studies [34][35][36]. Zone of Inhibition values can be seen in Supplemental Table #2. Organisms were determined to be either resistant (R), intermediately resistant (IR), or susceptible (S) to the antibiotics. ...
Shem Creek is a Charleston waterway well-known for numerous recreational activities such as paddle boarding, fishing, and kayaking. However, Charleston WaterKeepers, a local organization, has consistently found high levels of coliform bacteria within Shem Creek. With antibiotic prescription rates surging and coastal flooding becoming an increasing concern, antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARBs) have become both a public health and environmental risk. ARBs can lead to the spread of antibiotic-resistant infections (ARIs) within populations. Precipitation influences bacterial concentrations in a body of water. Immediately after rainfall, the levels of bacteria rise tremendously. Runoff from livestock, sewage, and hospitals are known to contribute to the development of ARBs in bodies of water. Consistent water testing is essential to preventing the risk and spread of ARIs and determining what additional factors contribute to the development of ARBs in an aquatic environment. This pilot study found that precipitation was directly associated with the levels of bacteria found within Shem Creek and validated that ARBs are present within local waterways in Charleston, South Carolina.
