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Xyloglucan (Xh) characterization. (A) HPAEC-PAD PA1 chromatogram of hydrolyzed Xh. Xh monosaccharide composition is based on glucitol, fucose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and xylose. The specific identification of monosaccharides is based on internal standards. Indicated percentages correspond to dry weight of each monosaccharide when 100 mg of Xh are injected, based on calibration curves for each standard. (B) HPAEC-PAD PA100 chromatogram of native Xh. The main peak (75.9% AUC) at 31.9 min corresponds to heptamaloxyloglucan DP7 XFGol and the two minor peaks at 33.9 and 34.5 min correspond to oligomers of DP8 and DP9, respectively. No free monosaccharides are detected in Xh. (C) Xh MALDI-TOF spectrum (ES+): heptamaloxyloglucan (DP7, XFGol) MS (ES+): m/z = 1101 [M+Na]+, DP8 (LFGol) MS (ES+): m/z = 1263 [M+Na]+, DP9 (GLFGol) m/z = 1425 [M+Na]+. (D) 1H-NMR spectrum of Xh. 1H-NMR (400 MHz, D2O). 5.31 (d, 1H, H-1Fuc), 5.15 (d, 1H, H-1Xyl’), 4.98 (d, 1H, H-1Xyl”), 4.68 (dd, 2H, H-1Glc’,H-1Glc”), 4.58 (d, 1H, H-1Gal), 4.5 (d, 1H, H-5Fuc), 2.42 (m, 4H, internal standard: ISTD), 1.30 (d, 3H, 3.05, fucose methyl). (E) Deduced structure of the main purified xyloglucan (heptamaloxyloglucan or Xh DP7) presented according to the oligosaccharide nomenclature described by Fry et al. (1993). Structures of the minor components are presented in Supplementary Figure S1.
Source publication
Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are endogenous molecules that can activate the plant innate immunity. DAMPs can derive from the plant cell wall, which is composed of a complex mixture of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin polysaccharides. Fragments of pectin, called oligogalacturonides (OG), can be released after wounding or by patho...
Citations
... -1,3/1,4-linked-glucans(Klarzynski et al., 2000; Aziz et al., 2007;Claverie et al., 2018; Mélida 4 8 9 et al., 2018; Rebaque et al., 2021). In addition, one of the most interesting results that we found is that 4 9 0 this PTI induction resulted in increased resistance to P. syringae. ...
Immune responses in plants are triggered by molecular patterns or elicitors, recognized by plant pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Such molecular patterns arise from host-pathogen interactions and the response cascade activated after their perception is known as pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). Glucans have emerged as key players in PTI, but certain glucans’ ability to stimulate defensive responses in plants remains understudied. This work focused on identifying novel glucan oligosaccharides acting as molecular patterns. The ability of various microorganism-derived glucans to prompt PTI responses was tested, revealing that specific microbial-derived glucans, such as short linear β-1,2-glucans, trigger this response in plants by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, MAP kinase phosphorylation, and differential expression of defence-related genes in Arabidopsis thaliana . Pretreatments with β-1,2-glucan trisaccharide (B2G3) improved Arabidopsis defence against bacterial and fungal infections in a hypersusceptible genotype. The knowledge generated was then transferred to the monocotyledonous model species maize and wheat, confirming that these plants also respond to β-1,2-glucans, with increased ROS production and improved protection against fungal infections following B2G3 pretreatments. In summary, as with other β-glucans, plants perceive β-1,2-glucans as warning signals and stimulate defence responses against phytopathogens.
Highlights
We describe a new group of glycans present in the extracellular matrices of some plant-interacting microorganisms that are sensed by host surveillance systems and enhance the plant’s natural resistance to disease.
... Notably, there was high enrichment significance in 44 nucleic acid-binding transcription factor genes, 44 DNA sequences specific to binding genes, and 10 xyloglucan metabolism genes. Previous studies have demonstrated the close relationship between the xyloglucan pathway and induced resistance in plants(Claverie et al., 2018). The significant enrichment of these metabolic pathways shows that the induced metabolic pathway of the feeding treatment was completely different from that of the puncture injury. ...
To investigate the molecular mechanism of the defense response of “Cabernet Sauvignon” grapes to feeding by Apolygus lucorum, high‐throughput sequencing technology was used to analyze the transcriptome of grape leaves under three different treatments: feeding by A. lucorum, puncture injury, and an untreated control. The research findings indicated that the differentially expressed genes were primarily enriched in three aspects: cellular composition, molecular function, and biological process. These genes were found to be involved in 42 metabolic pathways, particularly in plant hormone signaling metabolism, plant‐pathogen interaction, MAPK signaling pathway, and other metabolic pathways associated with plant‐induced insect resistance. Feeding by A. lucorum stimulated and upregulated a significant number of genes related to jasmonic acid and calcium ion pathways, suggesting their crucial role in the defense molecular mechanism of “Cabernet Sauvignon” grapes. The consistency between the gene expression and transcriptome sequencing results further supports these findings. This study provides a reference for the further exploration of the defense response in “Cabernet Sauvignon” grapes by elucidating the expression of relevant genes during feeding by A. lucorum.
... Also, plant immune system perceives oligosaccharides derived from plant cell walls polymers (DAMPs) like cellulose 3-5 or CEL3-CEL5], mixed-linked glucans [MLGs: β-1,4-D-(Glc) 2 -β-1,3-D-Glc (MLG43), β-1,4-D-(Glc) 3β-1,3-D-Glc (MLG443)], xyloglucans, xylans, mannans, arabinoxylans (e.g. 3 3 -α-L-arabinofuranosyl-xylotetraose or XA 3 XX) and homogalacturonans [e.g. oligogalacturonides (OGs) like GalA 3 ] (Klarzynski et al., 2000;Kaku et al., 2006;Aziz et al., 2007;Galletti et al., 2008;Claverie et al., 2018;Voxeur et al., 2019;Zang et al., 2019;Mélida et al., 2020;Malivert et al., 2021;Rebaque et al., 2021;Moussu et al., 2023;Pring et al., 2023). Moreover, some additional plant sugars that are not present in plant cell walls, like fructans, are perceived by plant cells and trigger signalling responses (Dobrange et al., 2019;Benkeblia, 2020), and some seaweed glycan structures of high molecular weight, like sulfated fucans (fucoidans) and alginates, have been also shown to active defensive responses in some plant species (Klarzynski et al., 2000;Aitouguinane et al., 2020;Aitouguinane et al., 2023;Wang et al., 2023). ...
... Glc, Xyl, Ara, GalA and Man) bound through different types of linkages (e.g. β-1,4, β-1,3, β-1,6 and α-1,4) (Klarzynski et al., 2000;Kaku et al., 2006;Aziz et al., 2007;Galletti et al., 2008;Claverie et al., 2018;Voxeur et al., 2019;Zang et al., 2019;Mélida et al., 2020;Malivert et al., 2021;Rebaque et al., 2021;Moussu et al., 2023;Pring et al., 2023). Also, branched oligosaccharides (e.g. with Ara at position 3 in XA 3 XX or β-1,6-D-Glc branches in β-1,3-D-Glc glycans) have been shown to trigger PTI (Mélida et al., 2020;Wanke et al., 2020). ...
Pattern-Triggered Immunity (PTI) in plants is activated upon recognition by Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) of Damage- and Microbe-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs and MAMPs) from plants or microorganisms, respectively. An increasing number of identified DAMPs/MAMPs are carbohydrates from plant cell walls and microbial extracellular layers, which are perceived by plant PRRs, such as LysM and Leucine Rich Repeat-Malectin (LRR-MAL) receptor kinases (RKs). LysM-RKs (e.g. CERK1, LYK4 and LYK5) are needed for recognition of fungal MAMP chitohexaose (β-1,4-D-(GlcNAc)6, CHI6), whereas IGP1/CORK1, IGP3 and IGP4 LRR-MAL RKs are required for perception of β-glucans, like cellotriose (β-1,4-D-(Glc)3, CEL3) and mixed-linked glucans. We have explored the diversity of carbohydrates perceived by Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings by determining PTI responses upon treatment with different oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. These analyses revealed that plant oligosaccharides from xylans [β-1,4-D-(xylose)4 (XYL4)], glucuronoxylans and α-1,4-glucans, and polysaccharides from plants and seaweeds activate PTI. Cross-elicitation experiments of XYL4 with other glycans showed that the mechanism of recognition of XYL4 and the DAMP 3³-α-L-arabinofuranosyl-xylotetraose (XA3XX) shares some features with that of CEL3 but differs from that of CHI6. Notably, XYL4 and XA3XX perception is impaired in igp1/cork1, igp3 and igp4 mutants, and almost not affected in cerk1 lyk4 lyk5 triple mutant. XYL4 perception is conserved in different plant species since XYL4 pre-treatment triggers enhanced disease resistance in tomato to Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 and PTI responses in wheat. These results expand the number of glycans triggering plant immunity and support IGP1/CORK1, IGP3 and IGP4 relevance in Arabidopsis thaliana glycans perception and PTI activation.
Significance Statement
The characterization of plant immune mechanisms involved in the perception of carbohydrate-based structures recognized as DAMPs/MAMPs is needed to further understand plant disease resistance modulation. We show here that IGP1/CORK1, IGP3 and IGP4 LRR-MAL RKs are required for the perception of carbohydrate-based DAMPs β-1,4-D-(xylose)4 (XYL4) and 3³-α-L-arabinofuranosyl-xylotetraose (XA3XX), further expanding the function of these LRR-MAL RKs in plant glycan perception and immune activation.
... Also, plant immune system perceives oligosaccharides derived from plant cell walls polymers (DAMPs) like cellulose 3-5 or CEL3-CEL5], mixed-linked glucans [MLGs: β-1,4-D-(Glc) 2 -β-1,3-D-Glc (MLG43), β-1,4-D-(Glc) 3β-1,3-D-Glc (MLG443)], xyloglucans, xylans, mannans, arabinoxylans (e.g. 3 3 -α-L-arabinofuranosyl-xylotetraose or XA 3 XX) and homogalacturonans [e.g. oligogalacturonides (OGs) like GalA 3 ] (Klarzynski et al., 2000;Kaku et al., 2006;Aziz et al., 2007;Galletti et al., 2008;Claverie et al., 2018;Voxeur et al., 2019;Zang et al., 2019;Mélida et al., 2020;Malivert et al., 2021;Rebaque et al., 2021;Moussu et al., 2023;Pring et al., 2023). Moreover, some additional plant sugars that are not present in plant cell walls, like fructans, are perceived by plant cells and trigger signalling responses (Dobrange et al., 2019;Benkeblia, 2020), and some seaweed glycan structures of high molecular weight, like sulfated fucans (fucoidans) and alginates, have been also shown to active defensive responses in some plant species (Klarzynski et al., 2000;Aitouguinane et al., 2020;Aitouguinane et al., 2023;Wang et al., 2023). ...
... Glc, Xyl, Ara, GalA and Man) bound through different types of linkages (e.g. β-1,4, β-1,3, β-1,6 and α-1,4) (Klarzynski et al., 2000;Kaku et al., 2006;Aziz et al., 2007;Galletti et al., 2008;Claverie et al., 2018;Voxeur et al., 2019;Zang et al., 2019;Mélida et al., 2020;Malivert et al., 2021;Rebaque et al., 2021;Moussu et al., 2023;Pring et al., 2023). Also, branched oligosaccharides (e.g. with Ara at position 3 in XA 3 XX or β-1,6-D-Glc branches in β-1,3-D-Glc glycans) have been shown to trigger PTI (Mélida et al., 2020;Wanke et al., 2020). ...
... Also, chitosan application in chickpeas induces plant-triggered immunity and hampers fusarium growth (Narula et al. 2020). Apart from these OGs, other cell wall oligosaccharides such as xylan or xyloglucan-derived xylooligosaccharides (XOS) can act as DAMP and may modulate plant cell wall remodeling and defense (Claverie et al. 2018). In plants, these OGs and XOS can be generated by hydrolysis of plant cell wall oligosaccharides by polygalacturonases and xylanases, respectively. ...
... WALL-ASSOCIATED KINASES1 (WAK1) (Decreux and Messiaen 2005), THE-SEUS1 (THE1) and FERONIA1 (FER1) (Guo et al. 2009) are well-known receptor-like kinases and were upregulated at several time points after XB-treatment (Fig. 1E). PTI markers i.e., PATHOGEN-RELATED1 (PR1), FAD LINKED OXIDOREDUCTASE1 (FOX1), and FLG22-INDUCED RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE1 (FRK1) were differentially regulated (Rajniak et al. 2015;Manes et al. 2021;Claverie et al. 2018) (Fig. 1F). PR1 was upregulated at all time points except at 30 min. ...
... ROS accumulation was higher in XB-treated as compared to CB-treated leaves at similar concentrations, suggesting XB generation can influence biological processes such as immunity and cell wall metabolism ( Fig. S2B and C). Previously identified DAMPs such as mixedlinked β-1,3/1,4-glucans (MLG43) (Rebaque et al. 2021), xyloglucans-derived oligosaccharides (XG) (Claverie et al. 2018), 3 3 -α-L-arabinofuranosyl-xylotetraose (XA3XX) (Melida et al. 2020), trigger the activation of MAPK cascades and phosphorylation. Similarly, MAPK activation was observed till 6 h after XB-treatment and normalized to control level at 12 h and 24 h ( Fig. 1C and D). ...
Plant cell wall-derived oligosaccharides, i.e., damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), could be generated after pathogen attack or during normal plant development, perceived by cell wall receptors, and can alter immunity and cell wall composition. Therefore, we hypothesised that xylo-oligosaccharides (XOS) could act as an elicitor and trigger immune responses. To test this, we treated Arabidopsis with xylobiose (XB) and investigated different parameters. XB-treatment significantly triggered the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activated MAPK protein phosphorylation, and induced callose deposition. The combination of XB (DAMP) and flg22 a microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) further enhanced ROS response and gene expression of PTI marker genes. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that more genes were differentially regulated after 30 min compared to 24 h XB-treated leaves, which correlated with ROS response. Increased xylosidase activity and soluble xylose level after 30 min and 3 h of XB-treatment were observed which might have weakened the DAMP response. However, an increase in total cell wall sugar and a decrease in uronic acid level was observed at both 30 min and 24 h. Additionally, arabinose, rhamnose, and xylose levels were increased in 30 min, and glucose was increased in 24 h compared to mock-treated leaves. The level of jasmonic acid, abscisic acid, auxin, and cytokinin were also affected after XB treatment. Overall, our data revealed that the shortest XOS can act as a DAMP, which triggers the PTI response and alters cell wall composition and hormone level.
... Some studies have shown that Xh can act as a signaling molecule to regulate plant growth and development, cell elongation, and plant defense responses [17]. Recent studies have also shown that xyloglucan and its oligosaccharides can trigger MAPK activation and immune gene expression to trigger an immune response [18]. However, little is known about the mechanism by which Xh contributes to plant stress resistance, especially resistance to Cd toxicity. ...
Xyloglucan is an important component of hemicellulose, and xyloglucan oligosaccharides (Xh), which are metabolized by xyloglucan, play an important role in plant growth and development. However, the regulatory effects of the external application of Xh under cadmium (Cd) stress have not been determined. In this study, we evaluated the mechanism by which Xh contributes to resistance to Cd stress in ramie, a candidate plant species for toxic ion removal. The external application of Xh effectively attenuated the effects of Cd on ramie growth and photosynthetic pigments. Cd stress can also inhibit the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), resulting in a significant increase in the extent of membrane lipid peroxidation. After the external application of Xh, antioxidant enzyme activity was up-regulated, and damage to membranes in plants was reduced. In addition, the external application of Xh increased Cd retention in roots, thereby significantly decreasing Cd content in shoots. The external application of Xh also regulated the subcellular distribution of Cd and increased the Cd content of the cell wall. In particular, a root cell wall analysis revealed that Cd+Xh treatment significantly increased the hemicellulose content in the cell wall and the amount of Cd retained. In summary, the external application of Xh alleviates Cd toxicity in ramie by increasing the hemicellulose content and the Cd fixation ability of the cell wall and by reducing membrane lipid peroxidation via antioxidant enzymes.
... In fact, oligosaccharide treatment did not inhibit tomato growth, but tended to promote stem and root growth ( Figure S6). The growth-promoting effect of oligosaccharide elicitors in tomato may have resulted from the long-term effect of the reported growth-promoting effect of XOS (Claverie et al., 2018;Cutillas-Iturralde & Lorences, 1997;Kaida et al., 2010), which could have contributed to the favorable basic conditions of the plants, such as enhanced root growth, suggesting that XOS can act as a stressor causing hormesis phenomenon (Godínez-Mendoza et al., 2023). In order to create an effective biostimulant material that shows beneficial effects on plants for both defense against pathogen and growth, mixing a greater variety of MAMPs and DAMPs may be effective. ...
Basal plant immune responses are activated by the recognition of conserved microbe‐associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), or breakdown molecules released from the plants after damage by pathogen penetration, so‐called damage‐associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). While chitin‐oligosaccharide (CHOS), a primary component of fungal cell walls, is most known as MAMP, plant cell wall‐derived oligosaccharides, cello‐oligosaccharides (COS) from cellulose, and xylo‐oligosaccharide (XOS) from hemicellulose are representative DAMPs. In this study, elicitor activities of COS prepared from cotton linters, XOS prepared from corn cobs, and chitin‐oligosaccharide (CHOS) from crustacean shells were comparatively investigated. In Arabidopsis, COS, XOS, or CHOS treatment triggered typical defense responses such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, phosphorylation of MAP kinases, callose deposition, and activation of the defense‐related transcription factor WRKY33 promoter. When COS, XOS, and CHOS were used at concentrations with similar activity in inducing ROS production and callose depositions, CHOS was particularly potent in activating the MAPK kinases and WRKY33 promoters. Among the COS and XOS with different degrees of polymerization, cellotriose and xylotetraose showed the highest activity for the activation of WRKY33 promoter. Gene ontology enrichment analysis of RNAseq data revealed that simultaneous treatment of COS, XOS, and CHOS (oligo‐mix) effectively activates plant disease resistance. In practice, treatment with the oligo‐mix enhanced the resistance of tomato to powdery mildew, but plant growth was not inhibited but rather tended to be promoted, providing evidence that treatment with the oligo‐mix has beneficial effects on improving disease resistance in plants, making them a promising class of compounds for practical application.
... Also, chitosan application in chickpeas induces plant-triggered immunity and hampers fusarium growth (Narula et al. 2020). Apart from these OGs, other cell wall oligosaccharides such as xylan or xyloglucan-derived xylooligosaccharides (XOS) can act as DAMP and may modulate plant cell wall remodeling and defense (Claverie et al. 2018). In plants, these OGs and XOS can be generated by hydrolysis of plant cell wall oligosaccharides by polygalacturonases and xylanases, respectively. ...
Plant cell wall-derived oligosaccharides, i.e., damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), could be generated after pathogen attack or during normal plant development, perceived by cell wall receptors, and can alter immunity and cell wall composition. Therefore, we hypothesised that xylo-oligosaccharides (XOS) could act as an elicitor and trigger immune responses. To test this, we treated Arabidopsis with xylobiose (XB) and investigated different parameters. XB-treatment significantly triggered the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activated MAPK protein phosphorylation, and induced callose deposition. The combination of XB (DAMP) and flg22 a microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) further enhanced ROS response and gene expression of PTI marker genes. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that more genes were differentially regulated after 30 min compared to 24 h XB-treated leaves, which correlated with ROS response. Increased xylosidase activity and soluble xylose level after 30 min and 3 h of XB-treatment were observed which might have weakened the DAMP response. However, an increase in total cell wall sugar and a decrease in uronic acid level was observed at both 30 min and 24 h. Additionally, arabinose, rhamnose, and xylose levels were increased in 30 min, and glucose was increased in 24 h compared to mock-treated leaves. The level of jasmonic acid, abscisic acid, auxin, and cytokinin were also affected after XB treatment. Overall, our data revealed that the shortest XOS can act as a DAMP, which triggers the PTI response and alters cell wall composition and hormone level.
... Estos pmam son reconocidos por los receptores de reconocimiento de patógenos (rrp) de las plantas. Los pdam pueden ser fragmentos resultantes de la degradación enzimática de la pared vegetal, que se componen de polisacáridos complejos, como la celulosa, la hemicelulosa y la pectina, y que desencadenan las respuestas inmunitarias(Claverie et al., 2018). En comparación con los patógenos, se cree que las bacterias endófitas no activan el sistema inmune de la planta, ya que realmente no causan daño en el huésped, al producir cantidades mínimas de enzimas líticas. ...
Este libro aborda algunos conceptos técnicos sobre estrategias productivas existentes para mejorar la adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático en cultivos de interés y que pueden ser aplicadas en cultivos establecidos en el trópico alto colombiano. Primero, se presentan algunas generalidades de la relación entre agricultura y cambio climático, destacando los desafíos y las oportunidades que enfrenta el sector agrícola en este contexto. Luego, se profundiza en las características y los usos de los invernaderos en Colombia, así como su importancia y aplicaciones en la producción agrícola, y se establecen criterios para la selección y el diseño de invernaderos, que permiten maximizar su eficiencia, adaptabilidad y funcionalidad a las condiciones climáticas del trópico alto. Asimismo, se brinda información esencial sobre sistemas de climatización activa y pasiva, destacando su relevancia y eficiencia en el control y la gestión microclimática en el interior de los invernaderos. Además, se muestran resultados de un modelo de producción de agricultura vertical que se plantea como una alternativa innovadora para optimizar e intensificar la producción hortícola. De otro lado, se mencionan algunos conceptos de interés para el uso de invernaderos en prácticas como el endurecimiento de especies vegetales y la cría de insectos, resaltando su importancia en la producción agrícola sostenible. Por último, se dan a conocer técnicas biotecnológicas para enfrentar las condiciones de sequía, que ofrecen soluciones innovadoras y prometedoras para diferentes tipos de cultivos en áreas que pueden verse afectadas por la escasez de agua debido a los efectos adversos generados por el cambio climático.
... It is abundant in primary cell walls and a major component of the hemicellulose in dicotyledonous plants and is known to act as a defense elicitor, stimulate plant growth, and contribute to stress tolerance (Kaida et al., 2010;Páez-Watson et al., 2020). They are recognized by the plant as DAMPs and induce defense responses such as MAPK activation, callose deposition, and PR gene expression leading to protection against both biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens (Claverie et al., 2018) (Fig. 2). Treating crop plants with this molecule stimulates the expression of cell wall peroxidases, and cellulases and also induces ethylene synthesis (Larskaya & Gorshkova. ...
