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Historically, flood risk management in the United Kingdom has mainly concentrated on river and coastal flooding, yet flooding from surface water runoff is a risk to urban areas. A comprehensive study of the causes, the impact and the consequences as well as the management of serious pluvial flooding in Heywood, Greater Manchester, in 2004 and 2006...
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Context 1
... at 53135 0 N and 2117 0 W, at an elevation of around 130 m above mean sea level, Heywood lies immediately south and west of the Pennine Hills (Figure 1). The undulating terrain on fluvio-glacial deposits left by the retreating Devensian ice-sheets is dissected by two streams flowing into the River Roch from south to north across an urbanised catchment of about 8 km 2 (Figure 2). Although the main urban development took place between 1750 and 1900, since 1960 many open areas and brownfield sites, both within the town and on it southern margins, have been occupied by new housing and new low-rise, large warehouses on a new distribution centre ( Figure 3). ...
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... had to be evacuated twice to permit post-flood renovations. All six areas which experienced severe flooding are located along two streams which have been previously (Figure 2). Some reaches of these streams are still part of a combined sewer system. ...
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... to record the risk of flooding is in Paragraph 21 of the regulations which requires the inspection of records to reveal whether the property is at risk of flooding as a result of an overloaded public sewer, has flooded as a result of an overloaded public sewer or is not recorded as being at risk of flooding for this reason (Home Information Pack (No. 2) Regulations, 2007). 'At Risk' properties are described as 'those that the water company is required to include in the Regulatory Register'. Thus the properties in Heywood that have experienced flooding would not show as having suffered from flooding on a HIP. The Heywood case study suggests that HIPS should not rely on whether or not a ...
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Citations
... 3. C o m m u n i t y r e s i l i e n c e : T h e necessity for research on the role of community resilience (Andráško et al., 2020;Douglas et al., 2010;Hudson et al., 2022) in promoting effective flood mitigation strategies and on the factors that contribute to the success or failure of communitybased flood resilience initiatives (Wang et al., 2019;Wedel et al., 2008). ...
Integrating flood mitigation strategies into building codes on a global scale is a noteworthy initiative aimed at reducing the risk associated with flood-prone areas. The field of flood mitigation is constantly evolving and indirectly influences future building codes. However, there is a significant gap in research regarding optimizing building codes to mitigate flood-related risks. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the publication trends in mainstreaming flood mitigation into building codes by identifying the current state and critical key areas that potentially impact future building codes using bibliometric analysis. This research adopted a systematic review using the Web of Science database from 2002 to 2022, using the keywords «building code» and «flood». Bibliometric indicators were employed to summarize the key findings, including subject areas, publication trends, leading global contributors, influential institutions, citation patterns, authorship dynamics, and keyword analysis. The realm of research has experienced noteworthy expansion, emphasizing the necessity for further investigation. The findings also indicate that critical areas require attention in performance-based design, retrofitting of existing buildings, community resilience, the long-term effectiveness of flood mitigation measures, and the equity and social needs of the implications of flood-resilient building codes. In conclusion, such investigations are crucial in reducing community risk and creating resilient and sustainable communities in flood-prone areas.
... Urban drainage systems are often overwhelmed, leading to more frequent, deeper, and more widespread pluvial flooding. (Douglas et al., 2010). However, limited attention has been paid to the nuanced differences in sensitivity between urban and rural communities and the underlying reasons behind these disparities which necessitate further research. ...
Extracting baseline information on flood exposure and its temporal evolution is essential to formulate flood risk reduction strategies. At present, comprehensive, long-term spatial-temporal flood exposure research in the United States is lacking. The objective of the study is to evaluate county-wide flood exposure in the US and unravel its spatial-temporal dynamics from 2001-2019 to answer three research questions via hypothesis testing. First, how have human settlement areas exposed to flood threats in the US changed over the past two decades? Second, has the occurrence of floods and their resulting damage influenced the growth of developed areas in flood zones? Third, do disparities exist in the sensitivity to flood threats among urban-rural communities? Results show that the overall rate of development in flood zones in the contiguous United States has steadily decreased from 2001-2019. The Local Moran’s I analysis discovers pockets of emerging, expanding, shrinking, and changing clusters of communities that show a rapid increase or decrease of developed areas within flood zones over time. Most counties that experienced more frequent flooding events demonstrate greater responsiveness to flood hazards by avoiding development in flood zones. Finally, urban communities exhibit a higher exposure and sensitivity to flood hazards compared to rural areas.
... PF is called an 'invisible hazard' because it can occur in areas far removed from water bodies, where flooding is not typically expected [4]. This type of flood is complex to predict, and without the implementation of adequate long-term mitigation measures, they cumulatively cause massive material damage to local communities [10,11]. ...
Pluvial flooding (PF), resulting from intense short-duration rainfall events, is challenging in urban areas amidst climate change and rapid urbanization. Identifying flood-prone zones and implementing collaborative mitigation strategies with the local population are crucial aspects of PF management. This study aims to enhance the understanding of urban PF in Croatia by collecting historical PF data, creating the GIS-MCDA susceptibility model, and conducting a risk perception survey for the study area of Gospić. Susceptibility zones were generated utilizing topographical, environmental, and hydrological criteria using the AHP method. To examine the risk perception, a face-to-face survey was conducted among 5% of the city’s population (N = 64). Five factors were defined: (F1) risk awareness, (F2) anthropogenic and (F3) natural causes of PF, (F4) potential consequences, and (F5) preparedness. The reliability of the questionnaire was very high (>0.71). Most respondents believe they are ill-equipped to defend against flooding independently and express a lack of confidence in the measures taken by local authorities. The highly susceptible zones encompass not only agricultural areas but also residential zones of city. Among all respondents, 36% live in a flood-prone area and half of them have no flood insurance or other mitigation measures. Incorporating locals’ suggestions and problems, mitigation measures were proposed. Results from this research can be a starting point for further research in Croatia and can provide guidelines for decision-makers in implementing a risk mitigation strategy.
... Pluvial flooding is on the rise in developed nations. In the UK, pluvial flooding accounts for roughly 40% of damages along with economic losses in cities (Douglas et al., 2010). A governmentcommissioned report found that most of the damage caused by the 2007 floods in the UK resulted from overwhelmed storm sewer systems in urbanized regions (Pitt, 2007). ...
Urban pluvial flooding is a dangerous natural hazard that has become more common in recent years, making it a global threat to metropolitan areas. Surface water floods and flash floods are two common types of pluvial flooding. The second one is extremely hazardous and damaging due to both the power of the water and the debris that is frequently swept up in the flow. Buildings and their contents are damaged by pluvial floods, which also disrupt stormwater drainage, transportation, and electrical supply. Future flood risks are anticipated to rise because of urbanization, climate change, and global warming. Many essential features of urban flood hazards are still poorly understood due to the complex nature of the relevant processes and the paucity of long-term field observations. Therefore, in this paper, we have collected different sources of data that are used for flood forecasting. Satellite data, gauge measurements, and citizen observations are the most important sources of precipitation and flood data. Conducting a global case study review also showed that the Digital elevation model (DEM) and rainfall are the most crucial variables when it comes to floods, and they are nearly universally employed in all models. The discussion suggests that soil moisture conditions are likely to be the predominant mechanism causing the observed flood trends.
... Economic damages from flooding have been trending upward for decades around the globe (OECD, 2016) and in 2021 totaled USD 82 billion in damages (Swiss Re Institute, 2022). Floods can cause mass displacement, loss of lives and property, and disruption to transportation and other critical infrastructure and services (Chang et al., 2010;Douglas et al., 2010;Falconer et al., 2009;Yin et al., 2016). The most expensive floods tend to occur in cities, and the frequency and damage of floods in cities are expected to increase with sea-level rise (IPCC, 2021;OECD, 2016), increasing storm frequency and intensity (IPCC, 2021;Kunkel et al., 2020;O'Donnell & Thorne, 2020), and from the replacement of natural landscape features with impervious ones as part of dominant patterns of urbanization (Lashford et al., 2019). ...
... Pluvial flooding is on the rise in developed nations. In the UK, pluvial flooding accounts for roughly 40% of damages along with economic losses in cities (Douglas et al., 2010). A governmentcommissioned report found that most of the damage caused by the 2007 floods in the UK resulted from overwhelmed storm sewer systems in urbanized regions (Pitt, 2007). ...
urban pluvial flooding is a dangerous natural hazard that has become more common in recent years, making it a global threat to metropolitan areas. Surface water floods and flash floods are two common types of pluvial flooding that the second one is extremely hazardous and damaging due to both the power of the water and the debris that is frequently swept up in the flow. Buildings and their contents are damaged by pluvial floods, which also disrupts stormwater drainage, transportation, and electrical supply. Future flood risks are anticipated to rise because of urbanization, climate change, and global warming. Many essential features of urban flood hazards are still poorly understood due to the complex nature of the relevant processes and the paucity of long-term field observations. Therefore, in this paper we have collected different sources of data which are used for flood forecasting. Satellite data, gauge measurements, and citizen observations are the most important source of precipitation and flood data. conducting a global case study review also showed that Digital elevation model (DEM) and rainfall are the most crucial variables when it comes to floods, and they are nearly universally employed in all models. The discussion suggests that soil moisture conditions is likely to be the predominant mechanism causing the observed flood trends
... PF is called an ʹinvisible hazardʹ because it can occur in areas far removed from water bodies, where flooding is not typically expected [2]. This type of flood is complex to predict, and without implementing adequate long-term mitigation measures, it cumulatively causes massive material damage to local communities [8,9]. ...
Pluvial flooding (PF), triggered by intense short-duration rainfall events, poses a growing challenge in urban areas due to climate change and rapid urbanization. To mitigate the risk, it is imperative to identify flood-prone areas and implement mitigation strategies collaboratively with the public. This study aims to create a GIS-MCDA model of PF susceptibility zones based on topographical, environmental, and hydrological criteria and investigate the public perception of risk in Gospić. The survey included 5% of the city population (N=64), and data were obtained via face-to-face interviews. Five factors were examined: (F1) risk awareness, (F2) anthropogenic and (F3) natural causes of PF, (F4) potential consequences, and (F5) preparedness. All factors have moderate mean values, i.e., awareness, causes of PF, expectations of consequences, and preparedness is moderate. The reliability of questionnaire is very high (> 0.71). The PF susceptibility zones were derived with an accuracy of 76%. The most susceptible zone covers 10% of the city, including agricultural land, forests, meadows, and residential properties. Of all respondents, 36% live in the most flood-prone area. In conclusion, mitigation measures for decision-makers were proposed. Results from this research can be a starting point for further research in Croatia and guidelines for decision-makers in implementing a risk mitigation strategy.
... This emphasis stems from the recognition that relying exclusively on expert knowledge is insufficient to fully grasp the complexities of intricate issues, information, and contextual factors, especially within local settings. By involving various stakeholders, informed decisions can be made by considering a broader range of perspectives and insights [13,14]. Therefore, there is a requirement for the co-production of knowledge in decision-making processes [15][16][17]. ...
The field of environmental management, specifically flood risk management (FRM), emphasizes participatory decision-making to address diverse issues and conflicting interests among stakeholders. This approach recognizes the complexity of decisions and their long-term impact on sustainability. Collaborative knowledge production is crucial for understanding the system, generating scenarios, and establishing consensus on mitigation and adaptation measures. Transboundary FRM requires an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach, employing suitable tools and methods for assessment and decision-making. In the context of the CLIMAFRI project, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), we evaluated the practicality of a participatory Collaborative Modeling framework in the transboundary Lower Mono River (LMR) basin, shared by Togo and Benin. This framework enables holistic understanding, stakeholder engagement, and the identification of appropriate adaptation-mitigation measures based on predefined evaluation criteria and a Multi-Criteria Decision Method. Our study customized and evaluated the framework considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which restricted face-to-face interactions. The study’s results indicate that in both countries, FRM is characterized as being more proactive rather than preventive, meaning the actions taken mainly address a broader range of potential issues and opportunities rather than targeting specific risks to minimize their impact. Moreover, it is crucial to enhance preventive measures and further improve the flood assessment capacity. The information obtained from scenarios involving the Adjarala Dam, land-use, and climate change under RCP 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios for the years 2030, 2050, and 2100 is valuable for decision-making regarding the development and prioritization of adaptation measures. The ranking of the seven measures shows that capacity building is the most preferred, followed by dykes, early warning systems, regulation of land use, insurance, and retention zones. The group ranking of Togo and Benin highlights differences in their perceptions and interests, where Togo leans towards soft measures, while Benin prefers hard (physical) measures.
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... Over the past few decades, the frequency of urban floods has increased (Atta-ur-Rahman et al., 2016;Ziegler, 2012), and floods cause more than a third of global economic damage according to the EM-DAT international disaster database (Environment Agency, 2018). In the UK, approximately 40% of damage and associated economic loss in cities result from flooding (Douglas et al., 2010). In 2017, 55.15 million people (Bermúdez & Zischg, 2018;Milanesi et al., 2018), people (Milanesi et al., 2016;Xia et al., 2014) and vehicles (Martínez-Gomariz et al., 2016). ...
With the rapid development of city and the impact of climate change, cities located near river are facing an increasingly serious flood threat. The urban flood risk prediction management is imminent. The peak discharge and duration of flood are important factors in urban flood management, and they are also important characteristics of flood hygrograph. The common way is to use hydrological model to obtain the upstream flood hygrograph to drive the inundation model. However, the lack of information on reservoirs, barrage structures and land use make it difficult to construct high-precision hydrological models, especially in upstream cities where data is lacking. Meanwhile, the spatial heterogeneity of rainfall also leads to inaccurate descriptions of flood hygrograph for different return periods. In this study, therefore, we propose an approach for urban flood management based on the measured flood data from urban proximity hydrological stations to derive flood hydrography for different return periods, and establish a high-precision urban-scale river flood risk management method by combining with aerial survey technology (UAV).This method can allow information on river construction and underlying surface change introduced into the flood hygrograph implicitly, thus avoiding the difficulty of establishing the hydrological and hydrodynamic coupling of the whole basin. The applicability and accuracy of the methodology are explored in this paper with Chenxi City in the upper reaches of Yuanshui River. The model is based on the two-dimensional shallow water equation and calibrated using the 2017 flood process. Comparison the flood inundation of the 10-year flood hydrograph derived based on the 2017 measured flood with the actual flood process in 2016 (both with the same peak discharge) shows that the extent of inundation is strongly dependent on the instantaneous discharge, with the peak flow largely determining the maximum inundation extent and risk level, making the different recurrence period level flood flows derived based on historical river observations important for the assessment of urban flooding. This demonstrates the feasibility of risk assessment based on measured flood processes at adjacent sites. Subsequently, the measured flood hydrograph in 2017 is used to generate flood hygrograph under scenarios with different return periods (10-year, 20-year, 50-year and 100-year), and the overland flow and flood inundation for each scenario is simulated and analyzed. This approach provides technical guidance for flood risk assessment in areas where data is lacking (e.g., upstream mountainous cities).
... Cities across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are frequently faced with severe widespread and recurrent flood events [1][2][3] with devastating impacts on human health, buildings and the socioeconomic infrastructure of societies [4,5]. This trend is projected to worsen given the unprecedented trends of urbanisation and future projections of the global urban population [6,7], atmospheric warming and associated hydrological changes [8][9][10][11], the imprecise understanding of non-fluvial intraurban flood risk drivers and lack of improved urban flood risk warning systems [12,13]. ...
In 2015, Kampala City inaugurated the Drainage Master Plan (DMP), a flood risk policy to effectively manage recurrent urban flooding. Despite the DMP's salient interventions proffered by various urban actors and government institutions, the city experienced the worst sporadic flood events between 2019 and 2020. This paper interrogates the ineffectiveness of Kampala's flood policy in managing emerging and future flood risks with respect to flood management interventions and stakeholder involvement. Specifically, this research reconciles institutional practices in mitigating flood risks and further interrogates multiple forms of flood risk knowledge that inform flood risk policy. The study draws on multiple qualitative methods such as semi-structured expert interviews, a web-based survey and document review to better understand institutional responses to flooding and the role of urban actors and institutions. The findings reveal that Kampala's recent governance rearrangements led to an increased financial benefit that redefined drainage infrastructure. However, the drainage improvement initiatives have not significantly improved flood risk management due to a shift in institutional priorities, changing flood risk drivers, political interference and uncoordinated flood risk interventions among stakeholders. The paper calls for a rethink of the role of governmental-urban actors' engagements and coordination to enable effective flood risk policy formulation.
