World energy consumption by Region and will grow by 50% by 2030 (source: International Energy Agency (IEA) Non-Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Countries Energy Balance 2003). 

Contexts in source publication

Context 1

... provide an estimated 86% of energy and 96% of organic chemicals [1]. However, these natural resources will be depleted in the near future as studies has predicted that the global energy demand will grow over 50% by 2030 as shown in Figure 1 [2]. In addition, problem concerning global warming brought about from the emission of fossil fuels remains a major concern. ...

Context 2

... ILs used to dissolve the cellulose acts as a stabilizer for transition metal nanoparticles to maintain their small size, large surface area and to prevent nanoparticles from leaching. Boronic acids were predicted to disrupt the crystallinity of cellulose by binding reversibly with the numerous hydroxyl groups of cellulose, thereby improving the solubility and catalytic activity of cellulose, leading to the formation of 1 (Figure 12) [27]. Compound 1 serves as an excellent catalyst when coupled with the ILs-stabilized ruthenium nanoparticles for cellulose conversion. ...

Context 3

... (5-HMF) (Figure 14) is a furan based raw material that has been named one of the top building block materials obtained from biomass. It comprises an aromatic alcohol, aldehyde and furan ring system. ...

Context 4

... much research and studies have been carried out to elucidate the structure, reaction mechanism, physical properties, chemical behaviours of 5-HMF. Antal et al. showed that 5- HMF was formed from hexoses via an acid catalyzed dehydration with the removal of three water molecules (Figure 15) [19]. About thirty years ago, van Dam and Cottier, et al. showed that an aqueous and non- aqueous process could produce 37% yield of 5-HMF. ...

Context 5

... soluble polymers and insoluble brown precipitates. Thus, there is a need to come up with a suitable catalyst or a system for the selective formation of 5-HMF while not promoting the consecutive reactions leading to the formation of side products. Alternatively, continuous removal of 5-HMF from the reaction mixture would be an ideal process. Fig. 15. Production of 5-HMF and the corresponding side reactions. ) with DMSO as co-solvent in the presence of Amberlyst-15 [31]. They demonstrated the advantages of using ILs as solvents and reported a yield of 80% for 5-HMF in 24 h and at a relatively low temperature of 80C compared to that employed in the previous method. However, ...

Context 6

... and co workers have demonstrated the first efficient room temperature catalytic system by using [BMIM][Cl] with tungsten chloride and a biphasic system composed of ILs and a modifier, tetrahydrofuran (THF) (see Figure 16) [33]. ...

Context 7

... a number of investigations were made to examine whether the direct conversion of glucose to 5-HMF was viable. Zhao et al. made a major breakthrough by showing that CrCl 2 with IL [EMIM][Cl] are effective catalysts for the conversion of glucose to 5-HMF with a relatively good yield of 70% ( Figure 17) [34]. This discovery, paved the way for the direct conversion of cellulose to 5-HMF in ILs under mild conditions (55% yield) [1], while microwave-assisted route gave 61% yield of the product [3,35]. ...

Context 8

... has been proposed by Zhao et al. [34] that the reaction follows two possible pathways: (1) series of cyclic furan intermediates (A); (2) Open-chain pathway included formation of an enediol as an intermediate in the isomerization of glucose to fructose (B). According to their report [34], complex between CrCl 2 and the IL interacts with the open chain glucose and helps in the isomerization to fructose and the direct conversion to 5-HMF ( Figure 18). It was suggested that the mutarotation of the α-anomer to the β-anomer of glucose is the key step of the reaction On the other hand, Binder et al. [1] proposed two variations on the mechanism previously suggested by Zhao et al (Figure 19). ...

Context 9

... to their report [34], complex between CrCl 2 and the IL interacts with the open chain glucose and helps in the isomerization to fructose and the direct conversion to 5-HMF ( Figure 18). It was suggested that the mutarotation of the α-anomer to the β-anomer of glucose is the key step of the reaction On the other hand, Binder et al. [1] proposed two variations on the mechanism previously suggested by Zhao et al (Figure 19). It was concluded that the fructofuranosyl cation undergoes attacks by chloride, bromide, or iodide. ...

Context 10

... in one pot system was reported in which two brnsted acidic ILs, [EMIM][HSO 4 ] and [BMIM][HSO 4 ], acted as both solvent and catalyst for the conversion of inulin with a 5-HMF yield of 82% at 80C in 65 min. The advantage of the mixed ionic liquid system is that it is green and efficient system because recycling of the ILs is a simple process. Fig. 21. The pathways for acid-catalyzed hydrolysis and dehydration of inulin to ...