Working memory model (Baddely, 2003) 

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... is a long established theory that learners enjoy and utilize their cognitive information processing power as an important mediator to acquire knowledge. As Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) maintained, human beings initiate learning through a multi-stage memory model. Their model begins with sensory memory whereby dual conjunctive or single unilateral functioning of ear and eye captures the input (Mayer & Sims, 1994; Sweller, 1994). Next, short term memory (STM) works out some verbal or pictorial organization of the received input; this is further integrated into the prior knowledge and retained in the long-term memory (LTM). More recently, Baddeley (2003) has expanded the idea of STM, calling it working memory model (WMM). He contends that external information is processed in three different segments of STM after it is captured via sensory memory. As shown below ( Fig. 1), STM comprises one Control Executive with three subsystems, namely, the phonological loop (PL), visuo-spatial sketch pad (VSSP), and the episodic buffer (EB). The model further represents STM and LTM interface as a reciprocal interactive process, with light areas representing the fluid system of STM and dark areas representing crystallized knowledge of LTM. As such, STM is portrayed not only as a storage but also as a system with processing power. Thus, a number of scholars (e.g., Courtney, 1998) have argued that STM accommodates to the learning content types differently. That is, the content types could be processed variably depending on the learner's STM processing power (Craik, 2002). Many studies based on the processing abilities, especially in learning vocabulary, have used verbal and pictorial annotations in their instructional treatments to adapt the situation to the STM requirements (e.g. Chen, N.-S., Hsieh, & Kinshuk, 2008). As an important part, gender distinction has also been associated with STM processing power. And lots of investigations have tried to elucidate gender-specific hemispheric brain asymmetries both in regard to structure and function. Although the results are divergent, some general pattern of gender differences in functional asymmetry of language representation can be found. Baron-Cohen (2003) contends that while male brain is more lateralized to the left hemisphere for language the female brain tends to use both hemispheres for language. This pattern also gains support from neuropsychological evidence, indicating that left hemisphere dominance of language functions is greater in males than it is in females (Obleser, Eulitz, Lahiri, & Elbert, 2001). Due to this lateralization, Baker (1987) says, females usually excel in verbal skills and males excel in visuo-spatial and mathematical skills. Thus, the present study is an attempt to explore how short-term memory of males and females can respond to the English language vocabulary learning contents (verbal or visual) presented to them via mobile phones. Motivated by the role of STM in learning and conflicting results of gender differences in hemispheric lateralization, the present study investigates if dual modalities of verbal and visual presentations of L2 vocabulary are accommodated differently by STM and also if gender can have a role to play, thus affecting the results. In short, the study tries to explore the modality or gender specificity of STM. To carry out the study, as many as 158 out of 161 participants were selected from among those enrolled in EFL classes in an Iranian English Language institute. They were selected from 12 classes and homogenized through a proficiency test. Their age range was 19-23. The selected participants were then divided into four groups through STM ability tests, which are used to distinguish learners of different processing visual or verbal abilities. They are as follows: Group 1 (G1): learners with high-visual and high-verbal abilities; Group 2 (G2): learners with high-visual but low-verbal ability; Group 3 (G3): learners with both low-visual and low-verbal abilities; and Group 4 (G4): learners with low-visual ability but high-verbal ability. Also, the participants in each group were divided to male and female subgroups. The materials used in this study are presented below: Proficiency test: First of all, to make sure that the participants were all of the same level, they were required to participate in Nelson English language test. Vocabulary level test: The test was administered to assess the learners' original knowledge of words with a view on excluding the words with which learners were already familiar in the learning phase of the study. The word items for the vocabulary level test were selected from Bauman's General Service List (GSL) which consists of 2284 words. One word from every 40 words was selected, starting from the 40th word (40/2203 more) to 2000th word (2000/15 scenery).The Bauman's GSL is based on the Brown's corpus which contains 1000,000 words. For each word item, the following three types of representation were made: Type 1 represents the English word, pronunciation, part of speech, and the Persian meaning of the word. Type 2 represents the materials shown in type 1 plus the written annotation (i.e., a sentence). Type 3 represents the materials shown in type 1 plus the pictorial annotation. Examples of three differ ent representation types, for the word ‘ hut ’ are shown in Fig. 2. To enhance the result, all the sentences for type 2 were selected from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Chen, Software C.-M., package: Lee, and The Chen, objective Y. (2005). in this study was to work out a server-side solution and develop user-friendly English system presenting vocabulary the recognition materials in compatibility and recall (EVRR) with cell-phones. tests: Two Thus, 18 item a software tests of package Recognition for conducting and Recall STM were ...