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Wing shape variation between flies in different fruit hosts: (A) strawberry; (B) grape. The arrows represent the vector movement between samples.
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The invasive alien fruit pest Drosophila suzukii, (Matsumura 1931) causes economic loss in soft‐skinned fruit production across Europe. After its first detection in 2008, the species has successfully expanded to a wide geographic area and invaded new host plants in a relatively short period of time. The aim of the present study was to analyze the c...
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Context 1
... prevailing during larvae development can cause morphometric differences in adult shape ( Benítez et al. 2014b). In the present study, the effect of the host (food preference) on D. suzukii wing shape was assessed. The results demonstrate the plasticity of wing morphology in D. suzukii after being reared in two different host fruits. The GM results found two noticeable wing shape morphotypes (vein configuration) after a comparison of the average shape of wings in flies reared in grape and strawberry. It is known that the wing venation pattern of insects acts as a passive support, but also controls the three-dimensional form of the wing (Wootton 1981). The first principal component (PC1; simulation of morphospace in GM) shows a conspicuous variation of the wing in D. suzukii, mediated by the vector movement of the landmarks. This variation is located at radial veins and the set of veins located at the anterior section of the wing: narrow wings in flies grown in strawberries and wider wings in for flies grown in grapes (Fig. 3). These specific morphotypes could affect the wing aerodynamics, which may affect the strength of the wing in flight (Dudley 2002), and therefore contribute towards better dispersion and to success as a wide-ranging invasive ...
Context 2
... PCA (Fig. 2) showed that the first three components accounted for 69.8% of the total shape variation in D. suzukii, with a clear differentiation in the shape variation of the first dimension (PC1: 46.7%; PC2: 12.8%; PC3: 9.5%). In a detailed view of the shape variation, the results showed that the main differentiation is related to flies reared in different fruit hosts (Fig. 3). A noticeable expansion was identified in the radial vein Landmark #12 for flies reared in grapes. In addition, in the anterior section of the wing, a widening contraction of Landmarks #2 and #6 differentiated the wings of grape-and strawberry-reared flies, with the wing is noticeably thinner with a slight contracted radial veins. There was little difference in all other landmarks in flies reared in grapes versus ...
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The spotted wing drosophila fly, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura, 1931) (Diptera: Drosophilidae), is a pest which caused serious crop losses to soft-skinned fruits such as cherries, strawberries, and grapes. In this study, population dynamics of D. suzukii and its associated parasitoids were investigated. The surveys were conducted at one location of...
Citations
... These differences were not observed for the same fruit in different stages of maturity, and when the larvae were fed with ripe or ripening mulberries, the adults of both sexes were in the group with the highest TL ( Table 3). The size of adults in many cases is correlated with performance components such as fecundity, longevity, mating behavior and resistance to stress (Kingsolver and Huey 2008) and it has been found that larger adults can reach higher speeds and accelerations during ight, which could in uence the ight and dispersal capacity (Fraimout et al. 2018;Pajač Živković et al. 2018). ...
Drosophila suzukii Matsumura, known as spotted wing drosophila (SWD), is an Asiatic invasive fruit pest that has spread over the world in the last fifteen years, due to its high reproductive rate, its tolerance to different environmental conditions, the international fruit trade, and its wide range of host plants. In Buenos Aires, Argentina, blueberry is a major susceptible crop, although other cultivated and non-cultivated fruit species are frequent. The aim of this study was to evaluate the host suitability of commercial and non-cultivated fruit species (blueberries, plums, mulberries and cherries) at two stages of maturity by estimating an index that takes into account biological and biometric parameters. The development and survival of SWD cohorts reared on different fruits were followed from egg to adult emergence. Then, adults were sexed and some biometric traits were measured. The indices: Wing loading, Wing aspect and the Relative Performance Index (RPI) were estimated. The shortest developmental time and the maximum egg to adult survival were observed in the specimens developed in mulberry, in both stages of maturity. Only the length of the thorax showed significant differences between treatments in both sexes, and the largest adults were those reared in the ripe mulberries. The RPI, which relates performance and biometric variables, was the best parameter to evaluate the host suitability of SWD. So, it could be used as an indicator of the nutritional quality of fruits available in a region and to evaluate the importance of alternative hosts in the population dynamic of SWD.
... The first morphological traits to change under the influence of environmental and genetic factors are the metric traits (wing shape and size) [43,44]. That is why geometric morphometric (GM) method has been used to study the genetic variability and plasticity of different insect species [45][46][47][48][49][50] over the last several years. By analyzing wing size and shape, it is possible to reveal the invasive adaptation of the adults' traits to different environmental influences. ...
The Colorado potato beetle (CPB, Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) is one of the most successful invasive species worldwide. It has been present in Croatia since 1947, where it has caused significant damage to potato plants and developed resistance to several insecticides. Our study is the first attempt to investigate the population structure of CPBs in Croatia. SNP and GM techniques provided us with data about the population structure of the CPB population. A Bayesian model-based clustering algorithm implemented in STRUCTURE, principal component analysis (PCA), and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) were used to analyze the genetic structure of CPBs. For the morphometric analysis, the hindwing shape of the same CPB individuals was examined using wing venation patterns. We detected the low genetic and phenotypic variabilities of CPB populations and the presence of a single panmictic population in the study area, well adapted to different environmental conditions, indicating high phenotypic plasticity. Due to such exceptional adaptation of the CPB population, it is necessary to implement an area-wide approach in future pest control management.
... It is well known that metric traits (wing shape and size) are the first morphological traits to change under the influence of environmental and genetic factors [48,49]. Over the last 20 years, geometric morphometric (GM) has been used to study the genetic variability of different insect species [50][51][52][53][54][55]. In CM populations, GM methods have been used to reveal differences between CM forewings and hindwings as a function of the season (overwintering vs. summer), geographical location, and sex [56]. ...
Codling moth (CM), Cydia pomonella L., is an important pest of apples worldwide. CM resistance to insecticides is a serious problem in apple production. For effective management and control, monitoring of resistant CM populations is absolutely necessary. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether it is possible to find a reliable pattern of differences in CM populations related to the type of apple control method. The genetic results showed low estimated value of the pairwise fixation index, FST = 0.021, which indicates a lack of genetic differentiation and structuring between the genotyped populations. Different approaches were used to analyze the genetic structure of codling moth populations: Bayesian-based model of population structure (STRUCTURE), principal component analysis (PCA), and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC). STRUCTURE grouped the CM genotypes into two distinct clusters, and the results of PCA were consistent with this. The DAPC revealed three distinct groups. However, the results showed that population genetic differentiation between organic and integrated orchards was not significant. To confirm the genetic results, the forewing morphology of the same CM individuals was examined using geometric morphometric techniques based on the venation patterns of 18 landmarks. The geometric results showed higher sensitivity and separated three distinct groups. Geometric morphometrics was shown to be a more sensitive method to detect variability in genotypes due to pest control management. This study shows the possibility of using a novel method for a strategic integrated pest management (IPM) program for CM that is lacking in Europe.
... In accordance with previous observations (Bitner-Mathé and Klaczko, 1999;Gilchrist et al., 2000;Gidaszewski et al., 2009;de Camargo et al., 2015;Siomava et al., 2016;Pieterse et al., 2017;Lemic et al., 2020;Rohner, 2020;Cortés-Suarez et al., 2021), we detected a clear sexual dimorphism in wing size and shape in all three species, which was most pronounced in C. capitata. Sexual dimorphism in wing shape is most likely functionally relevant because it is widespread in insects (Cowley et al., 1986;Pretorius, 2005;Bogdanović et al., 2009;Gidaszewski et al., 2009;Ribak et al., 2009;Allen et al., 2011;Benítez et al., 2011;de Camargo et al., 2015;Gallesi et al., 2015;Virginio et al., 2015;Lorenz et al., 2017;Rodríguez and Liria, 2017;Pajač Živković et al., 2018). In C. capitata and D. melanogaster, males and females differed mostly in wing width. ...
The ability of powered flight in insects facilitated their great evolutionary success allowing them to occupy various ecological niches. Beyond this primary task, wings are often involved in various premating behaviors, such as the generation of courtship songs and the initiation of mating in flight. These specific functions imply special adaptations of wing morphology, as well as sex-specific wing morphologies. Although wing morphology has been extensively studied in Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830), a comprehensive understanding of developmental plasticity and the impact of sex on wing size and shape plasticity is missing for other Diptera. Therefore, we raised flies of the three Diptera species Drosophila melanogaster, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) and Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) at different environmental conditions and applied geometric morphometrics to analyze wing shape. Our data showed extensive interspecific differences in wing shape, as well as a clear sexual wing shape dimorphism in all three species. We revealed an impact of different rearing temperatures on wing shape in all three species, which was mostly explained by plasticity in wing size in D. melanogaster. Rearing densities had significant effects on allometric wing shape in D. melanogaster, while no obvious effects were observed for the other two species. Additionally, we did not find evidence for sex-specific response to different rearing conditions in D. melanogaster and C. capitata, while a male-specific impact of different rearing conditions was observed on non-allometric wing shape in M. domestica. Overall, our data strongly suggests that many aspects of wing morphology underly species-specific adaptations and we discuss potential developmental and functional implications of our results.
... Certain points are placed in a specific order at the intersections of the wings and form two-dimensional shapes in the coordinate system, which are then evaluated using various statistical methods [44]. In the last two decades, GM has been used very successfully in the study of the genetic variability of various organisms, especially in insects of the order Diptera [45][46][47][48][49][50][51]. Lemic et al. [52] studied the influence of the various agroecological conditions of mandarin cultivation on the wing shape of the medfly and demonstrated that similar environmental conditions favor wing shape similarity, which reinforced the panmictic population in a specific geographic area. ...
The hypothesis of this study was that different plant hosts of the medfly Ceratitis capitata may cause variability as a prerequisite for its invasiveness. The main objective was to determine population variability based on medfly wing shape in three favorable medfly host plants (peach, fig and mandarin) from different agroecological growing areas with different pest management practices, and to evaluate phenotypic plasticity as a basis for future expansion into new areas and new hosts. Using geometric morphometric methods across 14 specific landmarks on the medfly wings, 10 populations were tested from infested peach, fig and mandarin fruits, as well as laboratory-grown sterile populations. The studies led to the following main findings: (1) all of the medfly populations that were studied exhibited sexual dimorphism in wing shape; (2) the hosts in which the medfly develops influence wing shape and condition its variability; (3) there is significant variability between laboratory mass-reared sterile and wild individuals in male and female populations; (4) a high phenotypic plasticity of medfly populations was observed along the study sites. Even the low but clearly detected variability between different agroecological conditions and localized variability indicate genotypic stability and high phenotypic plasticity, which can be considered as a prerequisite for medfly invasiveness and dispersal to new areas.
... This tool provides data by measuring the distance between well-defined specific points (markers) placed at the intersections of veins on the wings. Since geometric morphometrics has been frequently and successfully used in the last decade to study various body parts of many insect species, particularly the wings [24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32], it is an ideal tool for describing the phenotypic plasticity of H. axyridis. ...
The Asian ladybird (Harmonia axyridis Pallas), native to Asia, is one of the 100 most invasive species in the world and has spread worldwide. This study aimed to characterize color forms of H. axyridis in Croatia and to analyze the variability of wing shape between populations and indicated forms. Geometric morphometric methods were used to analyze a total of 129 left and right wings in males and 126 left and right wings in females of H. axyridis collected from four different sites in Croatia. The results show a significant difference in wing shapes between the studied forms. Each form had its own specific morphotype that likely originated under the influence of genetic changes in the species. This study demonstrates that the use of geometric morphometric analysis is effective in studying the variability in H. axyridis populations. As this study is the first of its kind, for further clarity, it is necessary to conduct additional studies on a larger number of sites and an equal number of individuals of all forms.
... With the set of wings processed in the laboratory, a matrix of 300 specimens of D. suzukii was completed. Fifteen landmarks similar to Pajac et al. (2018) were used per wing (Fig. 1). Images were randomized with the tpsUtil program and with tpsDig program version 2.31. ...
... Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) (Rolf and Slice 1990) was used to extract data on wing shape. Based on the generated data, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of centrid size and Procrustes distances were done with the PROC FACTOR program (SAS 2009) (Cardini and Elton 2007, Torcida and Pérez 2012, Pajac et al. 2018. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to detect possible correlations between variables that relate the size of the centroid and Procrustes distance of the D. suzukii wing by sex and origin of the fruit fly population. ...
... Changes in the wing were more related to feeding by immature insects where wild specimens that developed in natural environments had larger dimensions than those produced in an artificial environment with a diet focused on mass rearing. The data are similar with differences in morphometry of the wing of D. suzukii observed by Pajac et al. (2018) in strawberry (Fragaria L.) and grape (Vitis vinifera L.). Gonzalez-Cabrera et al. (2018) also reported that females of D. suzukii raised on diets of banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) and blackberry (Rubus L.) had larger dimensions than the other diets evaluated. ...
The invasive spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura, 1931), affects fruit with a thin epidermis and causes great loss of production. In Mexico, it is regulated because of its economic damage. Relevance of the sterile insect technique has been analyzed for integrated pest management (IPM) against D. suzukii through study of effects of irradiation doses on control. Possible effect of irradiation at 200 Gy with Cobalt-60, sex, and condition (wild and reared on artificial diet) on wing morphology were analyzed by geometric morphometry analysis. No effect on wing morphology by irradiation was observed, however, significant differences were found in the centroid size of wild females compared with irradiated and non-irradiated females fed artificial diet (F147,2 = 67.45, P < 0.0001), and they had no significant difference (F144,2 = 0.81, P = 0.4477) in Procrustes distances. Wild males had significant differences in centroid size (F147,2 = 59.55, P <0.0001) and Procruste distances (F144,2 = 3.49, P = 0.0330) compared to irradiated and non-irradiated males fed artificial diet. Changes in the wing of D. suzukii were more related with diets of insects in immature stages. Complementary studies on artificial diets are suggested to produce insects with dimensions similar to wild specimens.
... In markrecapture trials in Trentino, Italy, winter morph D. suzukii were recovered more than 9,000 m from a point source . Larval diet can induce differences in adult morphology, including wing size and shape (Pajač Živković et al. 2018). Furthermore, differences in wing morphology as populations of D. suzukii experience seasonal and regional differences in fruit availability can influence flight ability and potential dispersal distances. ...
After its initial discovery in California in 2008, Drosophila suzukii Matsumura has become one of the most important invasive agricultural pest insects across climate zones in much of Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. Populations of D. suzukii have demonstrated notable behavioral and physiological plasticity, adapting to diverse environmental and climatic conditions, interspecific competition, novel food sources, and potential predators. This adaptability and plasticity have enabled rapid range expansion and diversified niche use by D. suzukii, making it a species particularly suited to changing habitats and conditions. This article reviews factors and evidence that influence plasticity in D. suzukii and promotes this species' invasiveness.
... Moreover, D. suzukii has a wide range of hosts including cultivated, wild, and ornamental plants (Kinjo et al., 2013;Lee et al., 2015;Poyet et al., 2015;Tonina et al., 2016;Saeed et al., 2018). Severe economic losses on fruit crops, especially cherries, strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries, have been recorded in many countries where SWD has been accidentally introduced Lee et al., 2011a;Kinjo et al., 2013;De Ros et al., 2015;Pajač Živković et al., 2018). Considerable damage has also been recorded in Northern Italy (Mazzetto et al., 2015a;Tait et al., 2018a). ...
... Similarly, cold-hardy grape varieties (e.g., V. labrusca, Vitis riparia Michx., and hybrids of V. vinifera) seem to be resistant to D. suzukii, unless already damaged by other factors (Pelton et al., 2017). Nowadays the presence of D. suzukii in vineyards is confirmed in many other countries worldwide (Baroffio et al., 2014;Grant and Sial, 2016;Pajač Živković et al., 2018). In Italy, it was found in the North East region and in Apulia Baser et al., 2015;Antonacci et al., 2017). ...
Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) is an Asian species, and is now widespread also in America and Europe. While it is acknowledged as a serious pest to many soft fruits, its impact on viticulture needs further investigation. This study focused on the relationships between D. suzukii and grapevine in Piedmont (North-western Italy), and was conducted for three seasons in 10 vineyards of six different grape varieties, surrounded by different crops and/or vegetation. Flies were collected using food traps, and grape berries were sampled to assess oviposition. The susceptibility of grape cultivars was analysed in the laboratory by exposing intact berries with a known skin hardness (i.e. skin break force mechanical property) and injured berries to female flies. A choice test was also performed to investigate the preference of D. suzukii for grape juice of different cultivars. Capture of adults in vineyards depended on sampling dates, surrounding vegetation, and years, but few eggs were observed in field-collected berries. Overall, in laboratory experiments, cultivars with soft-skinned berries were more exploited for egg-laying. However, among cultivars, the susceptibility changed depending on whether the berries were intact or injured. Concerning the latter, the most infested cultivars were also the most attractive to flies in the choice test. At present, D. suzukii may not be considered a threat to viticulture in Piedmont. However, considering the influence of grape skin hardness on oviposition and the attractiveness of some grape culti-vars, further studies are needed to better understand the relationship between D. suzukii and grapevine.
... GM was tested as an existing method, though novel in its application, for morphological differences in field-insect pest populations versus laboratory populations and integrated versus ecological populations in Croatia. That is, Pajač Živković et al. [137] revealed two noticeable wing shape morphotypes in Drosophila suzukii (i.e., vein configuration) between grape and strawberry crops. Different IPM practices in agro-ecosystems generate different degrees of disturbance in insect communities, as shown by Benitez et al. [138] where shape variation and fluctuating asymmetry levels were estimated by applying GM methods to the beetle Pterostichus melas melas. ...
The codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., is a serious insect pest in pome fruit production worldwide with a preference for apple. The pest is known for having developed resistance to several chemical groups of insecticides, making its control difficult. The control and management of the codling moth is often hindered by a lack of understanding about its biology and ecology, including aspects of its population genetics. This review summarizes the information about the origin and biology of the codling moth, describes the mechanisms of resistance in this pest, and provides an overview of current research of resistant pest populations and genetic research both in Europe and globally. The main focus of this review is on non-pesticide control measures and anti-resistance strategies which help to reduce the number of chemical pesticides used and their residues on food and the local environment. Regular monitoring for insecticide resistance is essential for proactive management to mitigate potential insecticide resistance. Here we describe techniques for the detection of resistant variants and possibilities for monitoring resistance populations. Also, we present our present work on developing new methods to maintain effective control using appropriate integrated resistance management (IRM) strategies for this economically important perennial pest.
