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Wild boar population growth and beech masting. (a) The effect of winter temperature on population growth rate (λ) in years after full or moderate mast (•, ···), and in years after mast failure (◦, ―). The horizontal dashed line indicates no change, i.e. λ = 1. (b) Probability of beech mast events in Austria from 1976 to 2013. Lines represent predicted values from binomial models (see Methods for details), shaded areas 95% confidence limits.
Source publication
Climate change is known to affect ecosystems globally, but our knowledge of its impact on large and widespread mammals, and possibly population-specific responses is still sparse. We investigated large-scale and long-term effects of climate change on local population dynamics using the wild boar ( Sus scrofa L.) as a model species. Our results show...
Citations
... This hypothesis of range expansion corresponds to reality, as unoccupied habitat for large mammals is readily available in Europe [5,23] and many species are actually expanding their ranges due to better protection and improved environmental conditions, e.g. milder winters in Central and Northern Europe [64]. Although we predicted that habitat availability for most of the species considered will decrease in the Northern European regions under scenarios characterized by reduced sustainability, lack of international cooperation and increased constraints on conservation and restoration efforts, we also predicted a potential increase in mean assemblage body weight in the Southern European regions under the SSP5-RCP8.5 ...
Restoring wild communities of large herbivores is critical for the conservation of biodiverse ecosystems, but environmental changes in the twenty-first century could drastically affect the availability of habitats. We projected future habitat dynamics for 18 wild large herbivores in Europe and the relative future potential patterns of species richness and assemblage mean body weight considering four alternative scenarios of socioeconomic development in human society and greenhouse gas emissions (SSP1–RCP2.6, SSP2–RCP4.5, SSP3–RCP7.0, SSP5–RCP8.5). Under SSP1–RCP2.6, corresponding to a transition towards sustainable development, we found stable habitat suitability for most species and overall stable assemblage mean body weight compared to the present, with an average increase in species richness (in 2100: 3.03 ± 1.55 compared to today′s 2.25 ± 1.31 species/area). The other scenarios are generally unfavourable for the conservation of wild large herbivores, although under the SSP5–RCP8.5 scenario there would be increase in species richness and assemblage mean body weight in some southern regions (e.g. + 62.86 kg mean body weight in Balkans/Greece). Our results suggest that a shift towards a sustainable socioeconomic development would overall provide the best prospect of our maintaining or even increasing the diversity of wild herbivore assemblages in Europe, thereby promoting trophic complexity and the potential to restore functioning and self-regulating ecosystems.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Ecological novelty and planetary stewardship: biodiversity dynamics in a transforming biosphere’.
... Studies on the effect and extent of density-dependent processes on wild boar population dynamics have reached different conclusions. Some studies suggested that density can influence female body weight, reproductive success and thus population growth (Bruinderink and Hazebroek, 1995;Imperio et al., 2012;Vetter et al., 2015), while other have not found any density-dependence effect on wild boar population growth, fertility or litter size (Choquenot, 1998;Frauendorf et al., 2016;Ditchkoff et al., 2012). Other studies argued that food availability is not regulated by wild boar consumption, as in classic herbivore-plant systems, but it depends on external factors with stochastic variations, hence for this species this density-independent variability would be more prominent than density-dependent processes (Choquenot, 1998;Uzal Fernandez and Nores, 2004). ...
... This finding implies Catalonian boar have negative density-dependence, where higher densities can limit but not suppress population growth, likely due to intraspecific competition for resources. Negative density-dependent processes have been widely described in other ungulates, such as moose, chamois or deer (Brown, 2011;Capurro et al., 1997;Coulson et al., 2000), and for wild boar (Imperio et al., 2012;Kapota and Saltz, 2018;Vetter et al., 2015). Other studies investigating wild boar dynamics found only weak density dependence, suggesting that this factor is unlikely to limit wild boar population growth (Bieber and Ruf, 2005;Choquenot, 1998;Frauendorf et al., 2016;Vetter et al., 2020), especially at the current stage of wild boar populations in Catalonia, which are assumed to be far from carrying capacity. ...
... The peculiar reproductive strategy of suids certainly render them capable to cope with environmental disturbance better than many other ungulates, favored the impressive demographic increase in wild boar populations observed over the last decades, and facilitated their natural or human-mediated introduction in many regions of the world [79][80][81][82][83][84]. The difference in reproduction strategies has also been argued to be a key factor to explain S. scrofa's ability to cope with environmental changes occurred during the Late Pleistocene of Apulia (southern Italy) through shifts in body size, whereas other large mammals reacted by modifying their range or went extinct [32]. ...
It has been proposed that suids were absent from Europe during the post-Olduvai to pre-Jaramillo Early Pleistocene (from less than 1.8 to more than 1.2 Ma) and that their “re-appearance” in the late Early Pleistocene would mark the end of the late Villafranchian and the beginning of the Epivillafranchian. Arguments enumerated in favor of this “suid gap” are the lack of suid remains from extensively sampled fossil localities of this age and the high reproductive potential (r-strategy) of suids, which would translate in a high commonness of their remains in the fossil record. However, here it shown that while suids’ reproductive potential is certainly exceptional within artiodactyls, there is no direct relationship between the reproductive strategy and preservation rate of a taxon in the fossil record. In Early Pleistocene localities of Europe and adjoining areas, where suids are present in a fossil assemblage, they are always rare. In terms of number of occurrences (frequency), suids range from being moderately common (~2.0–1.8 Ma) to moderately rare (~1.1–1.0 Ma). Suid material is also described herein from Peyrolles (Issoire, France; reference locality for MNQ 19), a site dated at 1.47 Ma, providing direct evidence for the presence of suids within the purported “suid gap”. The case of suids underlines an important source of caveat in inferring faunal dynamics of the late Early Pleistocene of western Europe—including the dispersal of hominins—i.e., the unequal geographical distribution of the paleontological sites of post-Olduvai to pre-Jaramillo age. Indeed, Peyrolles is the only large mammal site in western Europe located outside the Iberian and Italian Peninsulas reliably dated around 1.5 Ma. In the post-Olduvai to pre-Jaramillo period, there is a paucity of radiometric estimates (or they have too coarse a resolution) and of paleomagnetic excursions detectable in continental deposits. Basically, for this time span, there is a high dependence on biochronological correlations, although, at the same time, these correlations are less reliable—because these are based on a few sites not covering the entire spectrum of environments present in Europe and the sites are not independently dated with methods that outperform biochronology—than those for other periods.
... Wild ungulates in the European Alps are ruminant herbivores except for wild boar, which are omnivorous and feed on plants and fruits as well as on invertebrates, small mammals, and carrion. Wild boar females live in packs together with their offspring, and due to land use changes, rewilding, and to milder winters in the last decades, an increased wild boar population throughout Europe, including the Alps, is noted (Vetter et al., 2015;Sternath, 2018). ...
Sarcoptic mange, caused by Sarcoptes scabiei, is a disease that affects many species of mammals, including several wild ungulate species in the region of the European Alps, especially the Alpine chamois and the Alpine ibex, which act as parasite reservoirs. Here records of mange in alpine wild ungulates and its spread over time across the eastern parts of the European Alps are reviewed. First cases were recorded from Austria in 1824, and epizootic outbreaks have been described since then from the mountainous regions of Austria (mostly Tyrol, Carinthia, and Styria), Germany (Bavaria), Italy (Udine and Trentino) and Slovenia. Switzerland, by contrast, has so far been free of mange except for cases in wild boar, indicating that this species is not a reservoir host of sarcoptic mites for other ungulate species in the European Alps, and that, so far, the disease in ruminant ungulates is restricted to the eastern and central parts of the Alps. Mutual transmission among wild and domestic ruminants is possible and, together with the protection of vulnerable wildlife, is also a reason for monitoring and, if necessary, intervention to contain mange outbreaks.
... In fact, the wild boar is not only a widespread species but has become a pest in large areas. In many parts of Europe, densities of wild boars have been growing notably during the past few decades (e.g., Vetter et al. 2015). This increase has led to substantial damage to agricultural crops and can even cause problems in urban habitats (Geisser and Reyer 2005). ...
... However, any effect of ambient temperature (T a ) is only indirect, via food. The abundant availability of critical food resources, e.g., beech nuts, can outweigh the negative effects of cold winters on population growth of wild boar (Vetter et al. 2015). ...
... Generally, wild boar benefit from their large body size and their near spherical shape, which minimizes the area of heat loss. Vetter et al. (2015) found that body mass among adults correlates negatively with long-term regional mean winter temperatures across Europe. Wild boar in the coldest region were about 30 -40 kg heavier than in the warmest region. ...
The wild boar (Sus scrofa) originates from warm islands but now inhabits large areas of the world, with Antarctica as the only continent not inhabited by this species. One might be tempted to think that its wide distribution results from increasing environmental temperatures. However, any effect of temperature is only indirect: Abundant availability of critical food resources can fully compensate the negative effects of cold winters on population growth. Here, we asked if temperature as a habitat factor is unimportant compared with other habitat indices, simply because wild boars are excellent thermoregulators. We found that the thermoneutral zone in summer was approximately 6–24 °C. In winter, the thermoneutral zone was lowered to 0–7 °C. The estimated increase in the heart rate and energy expenditure in the cold was less than 30% per 10 °C temperature decline. This relatively small increase of energy expenditure during cold exposure places the wild boar in the realm of arctic animals, such as the polar bear, whereas tropical mammals raise their energy expenditure several fold. The response of wild boars to high Ta was weak across all seasons. In the heat, wild boars avoid close contact to conspecifics and particularly use wallowing in mud or other wet substrates to cool and prevent hyperthermia. Wild boars also rely on daily cycles, especially of rhythms in subcutaneous temperature that enables them to cheaply build large core–shell gradients, which serve to lower heat loss. We argue it is predominantly this ability which allowed wild boars to inhabit most climatically diverse areas in the world.
... [5][6][7][8][9] In addition, expansion in the geographic distribution and abundance of wild pig populations within their native and non-native ranges has been influenced in part by changing human land-use and climatic conditions. [10][11][12][13] 13 Expansion of agricultural lands, in particular, can facilitate the expansion of wild pig populations through providing both cover and high-quality forage. 10,[14][15][16] Wild pigs are omnivorous, 17 have high reproductive rates, and low mortality due to predation, even when young, 18,19 which has hastened wild pig range expansion into new regions and habitats. ...
BACKGROUND
As the population and range of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) continue to grow across North America, there has been an increase in environmental and economic damages caused by this invasive species, and control efforts to reduce damages have increased concomitantly. Despite the expanding impacts and costs associated with population control of wild pigs, the extent to which wild pig control reduces populations and diminishes environmental and agricultural damages are rarely quantified. The goal of this study is to quantify changes in wild pig relative abundance and subsequent changes in damages caused by invasive wild pigs in response to control.
RESULTS
Using a combination of wild pig population surveys, agricultural damage assessments, and environmental rooting surveys across 19 mixed forest‐agricultural properties in South Carolina, USA, we quantified changes in wild pig relative abundance and associated damages over a 3‐year period following implementation of a professional control program. Following implementation of control efforts, both the number of wild pig detections and estimated abundance decreased markedly. Within 24 months relative abundance was reduced by an average of ~70%, which resulted in a corresponding decline in environmental rooting damage by ~99%.
CONCLUSION
Our findings suggest that sustained wild pig control efforts can substantially reduce wild pig relative abundance, which in turn resulted in a reduction in environmental rooting damage by wild pigs. Ultimately this study will help fill critical knowledge gaps regarding the efficacy of wild pig control programs and the effort needed to reduce impacts to native ecosystems, livestock, and crops. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
... The main reason for this change can be attributed to a Europe-wide decrease in eBC emissions (especially traffic) since a significant portion of eBC in SMR_RB originates from regional and longrange transported pollutants . Meteorological parameters might also have played a role, due to the impact of weather changes on pollutant trends (i.e., unusually milder winters leading to a reduced need to burn wood for heating and the better mixing of pollutants in winter), which may be an indication of the impact of climate change in Europe (Borge et al., 2019;Peduzzi et al., 2020;Vetter et al., 2015). ...
This study analyzed the variability of equivalent black carbon (eBC) mass concentrations and their sources in urban Europe to provide insights into the use of eBC as an advanced air quality (AQ) parameter for AQ standards. This study compiled eBC mass concentration datasets covering the period between 2006 to 2022 from 50 measurement stations, including 23 urban background (UB), 18 traffic (TR), 7 suburban (SUB), and 2 regional background (RB) sites. The results highlighted the need for the harmonization of eBC measurements to allow for direct comparisons between eBC mass concentrations measured across urban Europe. The eBC mass concentrations exhibited a decreasing trend as follows: TR > UB > SUB > RB. Furthermore, a clear decreasing trend in eBC concentrations was observed in the UB sites moving from Southern to Northern Europe. The eBC mass concentrations exhibited significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity, including marked differences in eBC mass concentration and variable contributions of pollution sources to bulk eBC between different cities. Seasonal patterns in eBC concentrations were also evident, with higher winter concentrations observed in a large proportion of cities, especially at UB and SUB sites. The contribution of eBC from fossil fuel combustion, mostly traffic (eBCT) was higher than that of residential and commercial sources (eBCRC) in all European sites studied. Nevertheless, eBCRC still had a substantial contribution to total eBC mass concentrations at a majority of the sites. eBC trend analysis revealed decreasing trends for eBCT over the last decade, while eBCRC remained relatively constant or even increased slightly in some cities.
... Accounting for short-term population dynamics in spatial models of invasive species spread will become increasingly important as variation in climatic conditions increases. For many invasive species, including wild pigs, increasing temperature is expected to increase invasion success and expand regions with the potential for invasion (Vetter et al. 2015). Spatial models that account for short-term population dynamics can allow for uncertainties resulting from increased climate variation to be explicitly considered, improving predictions. ...
Invasion of nonindigenous species is considered one of the most urgent problems affecting native ecosystems and agricultural systems. Mechanistic models that account for short-term population dynamics can improve prediction because they incorporate differing demographic processes that link the environmental conditions of a spatial location explicitly with the invasion process. Yet short-term population dynamics are rarely accounted for in spatial models of invasive species spread.
Accounting for transient (short-term) population dynamics that arise from the interaction of age structure and vital rates, we predict the stochastic population growth rate and establishment probability of wild pigs following introduction into any location in North America. Established ecological theory suggests that the rate of spatial spread is proportional to population growth rate. Using observed geographic distribution data for wild pigs we calculated geographic spread rates (watersheds/year) from 1982 to 2021. We investigated if observed spread rates increased in watersheds with higher stochastic population growth rates. Stochastic population growth rate and establishment probability of wild pigs increased with increasing initial population (propagule) size and length of establishment time. Areas along the Mississippi, Ohio, and lower portions of the Missouri river drainages had the highest probability of wild pig establishment with many regions having probabilities close to 1. Spread rates demonstrated strong spatial heterogeneity with the greatest rates of spread (5.8 watersheds/year) occurring from 2008 to 2013 prior to the establishment of a National wild pig control program in 2013. Spread rates declined 82% (0.57 watersheds/year) in the period from 2013 to 2021 compared to the period from 1982 to 2013. We found significant positive associations among stochastic population growth rate and observed geographic rates of spread. Stochastic population growth rate explained a large amount of variation (79.3–92.1%) in annual rate of watershed spread of wild pigs. Our predicted probabilities of establishment and population growth can be used to inform surveillance and control efforts to reduce the potential for establishment and spread of wild pigs.
... In recent years, the wild boar has become one of the most numerous ungulates in Europe. Its expansion was mainly due to favorable environmental factors and the behavioral plasticity of the species (Apollonio et al. 2010;Vetter et al. 2015). This proliferation led to a negative impact on biodiversity conservation and economic damage to a wide variety of human activities (Massei and Genov 2004;Herrero et al. 2006). ...
Distance traveled and home range size describe how animals move in space. The seasonal variations of these parameters are important to comprehensively understand animal ecology and its connection with the reproductive behaviour and the energy costs. Researchers usually estimate the distance traveled as the sum of the straight-line displacements between sampled positions, but this approach is sensitive to the sampling frequency and does not account for the tortuosity of the animal’s movements. By means of the continuous-time movement modelling which takes into account autocorrelation and tortuosity of movement data, we estimated the distance traveled and monthly home range size of 28 wild boar Sus scrofa and modelled their inter-sexual seasonal variability. Males traveled longer distances and used larger home ranges than females, particularly during the rut in autumn-winter, consistently with the different biological cycles of males and females. Males enlarged their home rages during the rut but traveled constant average distances along the year, whereas females traveled shorter distances in correspondence with the peak of food resources and birth periods but exhibited constant home range size across seasons. The differences between the seasonal variation patterns of distance traveled and home range size, observed in both sexes, revealed the complex relationship between these two aspects of spatial behaviour and the great opportunity of including both distance traveled and home range size in behavioural ecology investigations. We provided a detailed analysis of wild boar spatial behaviour and its relationships with the reproductive cycles of males and females, promoting a deeper comprehension of their behavioural ecology.
... the reduction in predators [9,10], such as anthropogenic persecution of the wolf Canis lupus, land use change and the decline of the human population in rural areas [11,12]. Climate change also favors wild boar populations through milder winters [13,14]. As a species, wild boars are capable of successfully exploiting a wide range of habitats [15], including the transition zone between urban areas, agricultural land and artificial urban green areas [16,17]. ...
One of the most recent and pressing issues for policymakers to address is the presence of wild boars in urban and rural areas. Their aggressive spread and invasion of human-populated areas have created an alarming problem as the coexistence of wild boars and people poses serious threats to human life and property. Human-caused factors, such as residential zone expansion and land use change, have exacerbated this problem. Furthermore, natural factors, such as predator reduction and climate change effects, create favorable conditions for population growth. This study sought to gain insights into citizens’ perspectives on a current issue, specifically wild boar colonization and coexistence in urban and rural settings. Between September 2021 and November 2022, a survey was conducted in two communities of northern and central Greece, addressing 800 citizens in total. Obtained through hierarchical log-linear analysis, factor analysis and two-step cluster analysis, the findings indicate that rural citizens appear to be more concerned about agricultural production losses and the high risk of road accidents, while the invasion-level perception was high in both areas. Intensive hunting has gained widespread acceptance as a management tool for wild boar populations in both urban and rural areas, while anthropocentric (EGO) and ecocentric (ECO) social groups have emerged.
