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Vitamin D 3 (○) (a and c) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 (25(OH)D 3 ; •) (b and d) in adipose tissue and white muscle tissue plotted against content of vitamin D 3 or 25(OH)D 3 in feed. Values are means, with standard errors represented by vertical bars.
Source publication
The content of vitamin D in pork produced in conventional systems depends on the vitamin D concentration in the pig feed. Both vitamin D
3
and 25-hydroxyvitamin D
3
(25(OH)D
3
) are essential sources of dietary vitamin D; however, bioavailability assessed by serum 25(OH)D
3
concentration is reported to be different between the two sources. Furtherm...
Citations
... The second hydroxylation step, which makes vitamin D an active hormone, occurs in the renal cells by the action of 1α-hydroxylase, where 25OHD 3 is converted to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 (1,25-(OH) 2 -D 3 ), the active form of vitamin D. In contrast to D 3 , dietary 25OHD 3 supplied in the feed at a level of 69 mg/kg (equivalent to 2760 IU/kg), has been shown to increase breast [26] and leg [27] meat yields and to improve small intestine morphology [23,24] and adaptive and innate immunity [17,20,21,[30][31][32]. It is suggested that the beneficial results in response to 25OHD 3 can be linked to its longer half-life in comparison to that of D 3 (3 wk vs. 15 h) [33,34], its ability to stimulate an increase in Ca and phosphorus absorption in the small intestine [22], and its greater storage in muscle tissue [35]. For many decades, the poultry industry has improved meat yield and production efficiency as well as disease control using intensive genetic selection [36]. ...
The effects of the Marek’s disease vaccine (MDV) on the live performance, breast meat yield, and incidence of woody breast myopathy (WBM) of Ross 708 broilers were investigated when administered alone or in conjunction with in ovo and dietary supplemental 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25OHD3). At 18 d of incubation (doi), four in ovo injection treatments were randomly assigned to live embryonated Ross 708 broiler hatching eggs: (1) non-injected; (2) commercial MDV alone; or MDV containing either (3) 1.2 or (4) 2.4 μg of 25OHD3. An Inovoject multi-egg injector was used to inject a 50 μL solution volume into each egg. The birds were provided a commercial diet that contained 250 IU of cholecalciferol/kg of feed (control) or a commercial diet that was supplemented with an additional 2760 IU of 25OHD3/kg of feed (HyD-diet). In the growout period, 14 male broilers were placed in each of 48 floor pens resulting 6 replicated pens per in ovo x dietary treatment combination. Live performance variable were measured at each dietary phases from 0 to 14, 15 to 28, and 29 to 40 d of age (doa). At 14 and 40 doa, pectoralis major (P. major) and pectoralis minor (P. minor) muscles were determined for one bird within each of the six replicate pens. At 41 doa, WBM incidence was determined. No significant main or interaction effects occurred for WBM among the dietary or in ovo injection treatments. However, in response to in ovo 25OHD3 supplementation, BW and BWG in the 29 to 40 doa period and BWG and FCR in the 0 to 40 doa period improved. In addition, at 40 and 41 doa, breast meat yield increased in response to in ovo and dietary 25OHD3 supplementation. Future research is needed to determine the possible reasons that may have been involved in the aforementioned improvements.
... The 25(OH)D 3 enters circulation and can be stored and later hydroxylated in the kidney to the active metabolite, 1,25-(OH) 2 D 3 , as needed. To assess vitamin D status in pigs, diagnosticians primarily measure serum levels of 25(OH)D 3 , which can be increased through greater dietary supplementation with vitamin D 3 or 25(OH)D 3 (Arnold et al., 2015;Burild et al., 2016;Flohr et al., 2016). Several factors can affect serum vitamin D levels in pigs, including the dietary form of vitamin D and supplementation levels, growth stage, and sunlight exposure. ...
Pigs from 64 commercial sites across 14 production systems in the Midwest United States were evaluated for baseline biological measurements used to determine bone mineralization. There were three pigs selected from each commercial site representing: 1) a clinically normal pig (healthy), 2) a pig with evidence of clinical lameness (lame), and 3) a pig from a hospital pen that was assumed to have recent low feed intake (unhealthy). Pigs ranged in age from nursery to market weight, with the three pigs sampled from each site representing the same age or phase of production. Blood, urine, metacarpal, fibula, 2nd rib, and 10th rib were collected and analyzed. Each bone was measured for density and ash (defatted and non-defatted technique). A bone × pig type interaction (P < 0.001) was observed for defatted and non-defatted bone ash and density. For defatted bone ash, there were no differences among pig types for the fibulas, 2nd rib, and 10th rib (P > 0.10), but metacarpals from healthy pigs had greater (P < 0.05) percentage bone ash compared to unhealthy pigs, with the lame pigs intermediate. For non-defatted bone ash, there were no differences among pig types for metacarpals and fibulas (P > 0.10), but unhealthy pigs had greater (P < 0.05) non-defatted percentage bone ash for 2nd and 10th ribs compared to healthy pigs, with lame pigs intermediate. Healthy and lame pigs had greater (P < 0.05) bone density than unhealthy pigs for metacarpals and fibulas, with no difference observed for ribs (P > 0.10). Healthy pigs had greater (P < 0.05) serum Ca and 25(OH)D3 compared to unhealthy pigs, with lame pigs intermediate. Healthy pigs had greater (P < 0.05) serum P compared to unhealthy and lame pigs, with no differences between the unhealthy and lame pigs. Unhealthy pigs excreted significantly more (P < 0.05) P and creatinine in the urine compared to healthy pigs with lame pigs intermediate. In summary, there are differences in serum Ca, P, and vitamin D among healthy, lame, and unhealthy pigs. Differences in bone mineralization among pig types varied depending on the analytical procedure and bone, with a considerable range in values within pig type across the 14 production systems sampled.
... Though Dietary doses of 25(OH)D3 required for sufficiency has been reported (Chung et al., 2014;NRC, 2012), there has been inconsistent in literature regarding the potency and biological function of various products. While some scholars reported that 25(OH)D3 is a more potent form (Burild et al., 2016;Flohr et al., 2016;Lauridsen et al., 2010), others maintained that regular VD3 can be used in lieu of 25(OH)D3 without jeopardizing pig performance (Jakobsen et al., 2007). Some of the known sources of disparity include production stage, season, dietary calcium and phosphorus levels, and conformation of epimers (Arnold et al., 2015;Okafor & Homwong, 2024;Sawada et al., 2010;Tang et al., 2020). ...
Selecting breed-worthy gilts as sow replacements is essential for continuity of pig production cycle. Though
vitamin D3 (VD3) is known to enhance reproductive performance of multiparous sows, there is still a knowledge
gap on its impact in developing gilts and primiparous sows. This study was aimed to quantify plasma 25-hydrox
yvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3), serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and examine the reproductive performance of
primiparous sows fed diets supplemented with regular VD3, and its 25(OH)D3 epimers. The study sample
comprised 10-week-old replacement gilts (50 % Landrace x 50 % Yorkshire, N = 180) assigned in a randomized
complete block design to three treatments [2,000 IU/kg of VD3 (T1), 25 µg/kg of 14‑epi-25(OH)D3, half dose
(T2), and 50 µg/kg of 25(OH)D3 (T3)] equilibrated to 2,000 IU/kg in base diets. Selections occurred at 22, 27
and 35 weeks of age, respectively. Plasma 25(OH)D3, serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bone structure and
reproductive performance were analyzed. Dietary treatments influenced carpus (P = 0.023), fore view stance (P
= 0.017), infantile vulva (P = 0.014), inverted (P = 0.048), and prominent teat (P < 0.001). Post-partum 25(OH)
D3 concentration and ALP activity were elevated by day 25 (P < 0.001). Treatment diets also influenced total
born (P < 0.001), born alive (P = 0.048), and still born (P = 0.049). Two factors affect circulating 25(OH)D3 and
ALP activity: physiological changes in sows during lactation, and dietary 25(OH)D3 intake. 14‑epi-25(OH)D3 is a
potent metabolite for improving maturation of reproductive organs in developing gilts. It also reduces still birth
in primiparous sows.
... Additionally, a global interpretation of 25-OH-D3 is complicated by the variable accuracy of existing assays and the different population groups being analyzed. In daily practice, the most widely used methods are immunoassays, often automated, such as enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA), and radio immune assay (RIA) [16][17][18][19][20][21], or conventional high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) approaches coupled with ultraviolet (UV) or diode array (DAD) detectors [22,23]. Nevertheless, these approaches have limited analytical performance due to the lack of separation of vitamin D metabolites and are often subject to interferences. ...
... Parker et al. 2017 [4] reported a reference range of 24 to 86 ng/mL for 25-OH-D3 in a national veterinary endocrine laboratory. Other studies based on LC-MS/MS analysis indicated similar results, with mean concentrations in healthy dogs ranging from 29.6 to 57.0 ng/mL [32][33][34][35][36]. Additionally, quantifications of 25-OH-D3 in canine serum conducted using HPLC-UV [23,23] reported concentrations ranging from 17.2 to 30.76 ng/mL. However, direct comparison with other studies might be challenging, due to the difference in the analyzed populations and the analytical techniques employed. ...
... Parker et al. 2017 [4] reported a reference range of 24 to 86 ng/mL for 25-OH-D3 in a national veterinary endocrine laboratory. Other studies based on LC-MS/MS analysis indicated similar results, with mean concentrations in healthy dogs ranging from 29.6 to 57.0 ng/mL [32][33][34][35][36]. Additionally, quantifications of 25-OH-D3 in canine serum conducted using HPLC-UV [23,23] reported concentrations ranging from 17.2 to 30.76 ng/mL. However, direct comparison with other studies might be challenging, due to the difference in the analyzed populations and the analytical techniques employed. ...
Simple Summary
Vitamin D deficiency and toxicity are common and well-recognized conditions in dogs. The metabolite 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 is the main endogenous biomarker for the evaluation of vitamin D3 status. In this study, we developed a simple analytical method for 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 quantification in canine serum. The method was validated following the current European guidelines and yielded satisfactory results, representing a new tool for supporting clinicians in the correct diagnosis and monitoring of vitamin D3 status in dogs.
Abstract
Several studies have shown the importance of vitamin D3 supplementation in small animals. In dogs, a low vitamin D3 status is associated not only with bone metabolism but also with different kinds of disorders, such as congestive heart failure, gastrointestinal diseases, chronic kidney diseases, and some types of cancer. However, it is crucial to maintain balance and monitor the introduction of this essential nutrient through the diet because over-supplementation can result in toxicity. Due to the clinical importance of assessing the vitamin D3 status in small animal patients, a quick, simple, and highly performing analytical method for its measurement is needed. In this study, we describe the development of a novel liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 quantification in canine serum. The approach was successfully validated following current European guidelines, proving excellent linearity (R2 always ≥0.996), accuracy (always within ±13%) and precision (always <10%). The application of the validated approach to samples collected from 40 healthy dogs made possible the definition of a reliable reference interval for 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, the main biomarker of vitamin D3. In addition, variations below 5% in the results obtained quantifying the same samples using a water-based calibration curve demonstrated that a surrogate matrix may be used without affecting data accuracy. Thanks to its simplicity, the proposed technique represents a useful tool for supporting clinical routine and investigating correlations between serum concentrations of this metabolite and multiple diseases. Additionally, it could enable the monitoring of supplementation in small animal patients in veterinary clinical practice.
... At the latitude of 55 degrees north (55 • N), 1 SED is equal to 10 min of sun exposure at the zenith in summertime [19]. Natural or artificial UVB exposure of animals with 1 SED results in higher cholecalciferol and calcidiol levels in the blood compared to animals relying on dietary vitamin D 3 at 2000 IU/kg feed [20,21]. According to Barnkob et al., UVB exposure of pigs at 1 SED results in higher amounts of vitamin D 3 levels in various body compartments such as serum, skin, subcutaneous fat, lean meat, and liver compared to exposure at 0.3 and 0.7 SED [22]. ...
In the currently prevailing pig husbandry systems, the vitamin D status is almost exclusively dependent on dietary supply. Additional endogenous vitamin D production after exposure to ultraviolet-B (UVB) light might allow the animals to utilize minerals in a more efficient manner, as well as enable the production of functional vitamin D-enriched meat for human consumption. In this study, growing pigs (n = 16) were subjected to a control group or to a daily narrowband UVB exposure of 1 standard erythema dose (SED) for a period of 9 weeks until slaughter at a body weight of 105 kg. Transcriptomic profiling of liver with emphasis on the associated effects on vitamin D metabolism due to UVB exposure were evaluated via RNA sequencing. Serum was analyzed for vitamin D status and health parameters such as minerals and biochemical markers. The serum concentration of calcidiol, but not calcitriol, was significantly elevated in response to UVB exposure after 17 days on trial. No effects of UVB exposure were observed on growth performance and blood test results. At slaughter, the RNA sequencing analyses following daily UVB exposure revealed 703 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in liver tissue (adjusted p-value < 0.01). Results showed that molecular pathways for vitamin D synthesis (CYP2R1) rather than cholesterol synthesis (DHCR7) were preferentially initiated in liver. Gene enrichment (p < 0.05) was observed for reduced cholesterol/steroid biosynthesis, SNARE interactions in vesicular transport, and CDC42 signaling. Taken together, dietary vitamin D supply can be complemented via endogenous production after UVB exposure in pig husbandry, which could be considered in the development of functional foods for human consumption.
... The second hydroxylation step takes place in the kidney via 1a-hydroxylase, where 25OHD 3 is converted to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, the active form of vitamin D. Vitamin D 3 is a prehormone and is involved in different biological processes in chickens such as Ca homeostasis (De Matos, 2008), immune system regulation (Shojadoost et al., 2015), intestinal absorption of Ca and phosphorous (Bar et al., 1980), bone formation (Fritts and Waldroup, 2003), and muscle development (Vignale et a., 2015). The aforementioned effects may be due to the longer half-life of 25OHD 3 (Smith et al., 1971;Hollis et al., 2013), an increase in Ca and phosphorus absorption in the small intestine (Bar et al., 1980), and its greater storage in muscle tissue (Burild et al., 2016). ...
The combined effects of the in ovo injection of commercial Marek's disease vaccine (MDV) and various levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25OHD3) on the hatch variables, immunological measurements, and gene expression of Ross 708 hatchling broilers were investigated. A total of 5 in ovo injection treatments that were applied at 18 d of incubation (doi) included: 1) noninjected (control); or a 50 μL solution volume of 2) MDV alone; or MDV combined with 3) 0.6 μg of 25OHD3; 4) 1.2 μg of 25OHD3; or 5) 2.4 μg of 25OHD3. At hatch, hatchability of set and live embryonated eggs, hatchling body weight, hatch residue analysis, serum IgY and alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP) concentrations, and the expression of genes related to immunity (INFα, INFβ, INFγ, TLR-3, and TLR-21) and vitamin D3 activity (1 α-hydroxylase, 24 hydroxylase, and vitamin D receptor) were determined. No significant treatment differences were observed for hatchability of set and live embryonated eggs, or for serum IgY and AGP concentrations. However, hatchling body weight was higher when MDV was combined with either 1.2 or 2.4 μg of 25OHD3 than when MDV was provided alone or in combination with 0.6 μg of 25OHD3. Also, in comparison to the noninjected treatment group, the expression of the genes for 1 α-hydroxylase and 24 hydroxylase was improved when MDV was combined with either 1.2 or 2.4 μg of 25OHD3. Lastly, expression of the genes linked to viral detection (TLR-3) and antibody production (INF-β) was increased in those treatments that contained any level of 25OHD3. These results indicate that in comparison to controls, the effects of MDV were observed to be greater on hatchling BW and splenic gene expression when it was administered in combination with the 1.2 or 2.4 μg doses of 25OHD3. Further research is needed to determine the posthatch effects of the administration of various levels of 25OHD3 in combination with MDV.
... Since DON can also induce inflammation and oxidative stress [3,5], adding vitamin D to piglets' diet may be protective. Moreover, vitamin D supplementation could prevent growth depression [26] and vitamin D deficiency in piglets [27,28]. ...
... Since DON can also induce inflammation and oxidative stress [3,5], adding vitamin D to piglets' diet may be protective. Moreover, vitamin D supplementation could prevent growth depression [26] and vitamin D deficiency in piglets [27,28]. DON contamination is known to impact the integrity of the intestinal barrier. ...
Using alternative feed ingredients in pig diets can lead to deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination. DON has been shown to induce anorexia, inflammation, and—more recently—alterations in the vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus metabolisms. Adding vitamin D supplementation in the form of vitamin D3 and 25-OH-D3 to the feed could modify the effects of DON in piglets. In this study, vitamin D3 or 25-OH-D3 supplementation was used in a control or DON-contaminated treatment. A repetitive exposure over 21 days to DON in the piglets led to disruptions in the vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus metabolisms, resulting in a decreased growth performance, increased bone mineralization, and the downregulation of genes related to calcium and to phosphorus intestinal and renal absorption. The DON challenge also decreased blood concentrations of 25-OH-D3, 1,25-(OH)2-D3, and phosphate. The DON contamination likely decreased the piglets’ vitamin D status indirectly by modifying the calcium metabolism response. Vitamin D supplementations did not restore vitamin D status or bone mineralization. After a lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory stimulation, feeding a 25-OH-D3 supplementation increased 25-OH-D3 concentration and 1,25-(OH)2-D3 regulations during the DON challenge. DON contamination likely induced a Ca afflux by altering the intestinal barrier, which resulted in hypercalcemia and hypovitaminosis D. The vitamin D supplementation could increase the calcitriol production to face the combined LPS and DON challenge.
... For calculating consumer exposure, an average between the groups with 56.4 and 168.7 lg 25-OH-D3/kg feed was used (liver: 21.0, kidney: 33.6, muscle 8.3, fat 17.0 lg/kg) as representative of the value expected from the use of 25-OH-D 3 at the concentration of 100 lg/kg complete feed which correspond to the maximum authorised concentration for vitamin D 3 of 4,000 IU/kg complete feed. 42 Since these values were higher than those reported in studies available with pigs (Jacobsen et al., Burild et al., 2016;von Rosenberg et al., 2016;Duffy et al., 2018a,b), values from cattle study were taken for the consumer exposure assessment. ...
Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (produced by Pseudonocardia autotrophica DSM 32858) for all pigs, all poultry for fattening and ornamental birds and other poultry species. The production strain P. autotrophica DSM 32858 is not genetically modified however, uncertainties remain on the possible presence of its viable cells in the final product. Due to the lack of adequate safety data and uncertainty on the presence of nano particles, the FEEDAP Panel cannot conclude on the safety of the additive for the target species and the consumer. The additive was shown not to be irritant to skin or eyes and it is not a skin sensitiser. Considering the low dusting potential of the additive, the FEEDAP Panel concluded that the exposure through inhalation is unlikely. However, the FEEDAP Panel considered that uncertainties remain on genotoxicity and on the possible presence of viable cells of P. autotrophica DSM 32858 in the final product which might have an impact on the safety for the users. The use of the feed additive is considered safe for the environment. The Panel concluded that the additive has a potential to be efficacious under the proposed conditions of use.
... The dietary supplementation of the intermediate vitamin D metabolite 25-OH-D 3 allows a bypass of the first step in the metabolic activation of vitamin D 3 in vivo. Consequently, dietary 25-OH-D 3 is considerably more potent than the pre-vitamin D 3 in humans, poultry and swine, yet very few studies have assessed the nutritional utility of this vitamin D metabolite in fish (Yarger et al., 1995;Burild et al., 2016;Quesada-Gomez and Bouillon, 2018). 25-OH-D 3 may be particularly beneficial to salmonids, which have higher requirements and tolerances to vitamin D than reported in terrestrial species (Woodward, 1994;Liu et al., 2022). ...
... Whilst the efficacy of the supplementation 25-OH-D 3 has been well reported in humans and terrestrial livestock (Yarger et al., 1995;Burild et al., 2016;Quesada-Gomez and Bouillon, 2018), very few studies have focused on this vitamin D metabolite in cultivated fish and shrimp. This is surprising given the increasingly realized diversity of the physiological functions of the vitamin D endocrine system in vertebrates, including fish (Lock et al., 2010;Fraser, 2018;Liu et al., 2022). ...
... This may indicate a limitation in the conversion of D 3 to 25-OH-D 3 in fish. A greater bioavailability of 25-OH-D 3 compared to D 3 has been well documented in humans and terrestrial livestock (Yarger et al., 1995;Burild et al., 2016;Quesada-Gomez and Bouillon, 2018). In rainbow trout, over 80% of (injected) circulating 25-OH-D 3 is rapidly metabolized within two hours to four more polar metabolites, the majority of which includes 1,25-OH-D 3 and 25,26-OH-D 3 (Hayes et al., 1986). ...
... Moreover, 25(OH)D 3 was found to be more effective than D 3 in improving production performance, breast meat production and reducing inflammation (Morris et al. 2014;Vignale et al. 2015;Fatemi 2016). The reason may be due to its long half-life, which can enhance the absorption of calcium in the gut or increased calcium storage in muscle tissue (Morris et al. 2014;Burild et al. 2016). Meanwhile, other studies have shown that diets supplemented with 25(OH)D 3 not only produced a better cellular immune response in broilers (Gómez-Verduzco et al. 2013) but also improves vitamin D status and stimulates breast muscle growth in broilers by increasing skeletal muscle satellite cells proliferation (Avila et al. 2022). ...
This study aimed to investigate the effects of different concentrations of in ovo injection of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25(OH)D3) on early growth, immune and tibia development in Daheng broilers. The results showed that 25(OH)D3 can significantly improve the hatchability of broilers and improve body weight (p < 0.05). The low concentration of 25(OH)D3 (8 μg/mL) not only significantly increased tibial fresh weight, tibial length, tibial diameter, thymus and liver weight and immune organ index (p < 0.05), but also significantly increased the content of bone metabolism-related factors OC and CaBP in serum and the expression levels of OC in the liver (p < 0.05). However, a high concentration of 25(OH)D3 group (16 μg/mL) significantly increased bursa of Fabricius weight and immune organ index (p < 0.05), the content of immune factor IL-2, IFN-γ and TLR15 in serum and the expression level of IFN-γ and TLR15 in the spleen (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the content of ash, calcium and phosphorus in the tibia was negatively correlated with the expression level of OC and positively correlated with the expression level of ALP (p > 0.05). Our data suggested that 25(OH)D3 has positive effects on the early growth, immune, bone development of broiler during the early stage, which is a supplement to improve disease resistance and skeletal development of broilers.
