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Viral abundance of Agave-associated viruses by organ. Pie charts indicate viral family abundance by expression in tpm, in (A): leaves, (B): stems, (C): roots, and (D): in total. Values are summed for all plants. (E): The stacked bar plot indicates the relative abundance of the top 12 expressed viral species in each organ.
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Sisal is a common name for different plant varieties in the genus Agave (especially Agave sisalana) used for high-quality natural leaf fiber extraction. Despite the economic value of these plants, we still lack information about the diversity of viruses (virome) in non-tequilana species from the genus Agave. In this work, by associating RNA and DNA...
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... the other hand, all the other samples displayed a similar profile, clustering together (Figure 4). Table S10 shows the raw expression table for each species according to each sample (and the annotated protein domains for each The richness of viral families varied in all the three organs; however, two viral families represent over 50% of richness in leaves and stems ( Figure 5A,B): Betaflexiviridae (represented by five viral species) and Closteroviridae, which was represented by a single species (Sisal-associated Closterovirus A). The roots ( Figure 5C) were dominated by viruses from Virgaviridae and exhibited the highest proportion of Unclassified viral species reaching up to 17.5%. ...
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... S10 shows the raw expression table for each species according to each sample (and the annotated protein domains for each The richness of viral families varied in all the three organs; however, two viral families represent over 50% of richness in leaves and stems ( Figure 5A,B): Betaflexiviridae (represented by five viral species) and Closteroviridae, which was represented by a single species (Sisal-associated Closterovirus A). The roots ( Figure 5C) were dominated by viruses from Virgaviridae and exhibited the highest proportion of Unclassified viral species reaching up to 17.5%. We also noted that the roots were the most diverse organ ( Figure 6, Table S9), with the number of taxa in all the three plant varieties above the mean alpha species richness of 11.66 species per sample. ...
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... assessment of the viral species in each organ showed that a few viral species seem to present systemic infection while others seem to be restricted to a specific organ ( Figure 5E). Sisal-associated Closterovirus A dominates all leaves and stems, and also the roots of A. sisalana, in which it shares dominance with Sisal-associated Virgavirus C that has the major contribution in the other root samples, of A. fourcroydes and Agave Hybrid 11648. ...
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... Closterovirus A dominates all leaves and stems, and also the roots of A. sisalana, in which it shares dominance with Sisal-associated Virgavirus C that has the major contribution in the other root samples, of A. fourcroydes and Agave Hybrid 11648. The top 12 species with higher transcriptional activity, shown in Figure 5E, represent most of the total abundance in all the organs, while the other 13 species are responsible only for a small portion of viral abundance including the roots of Agave Hybrid 11648, where this group of species displays higher abundance than all the other organs. Figure 6 also shows that fewer viral species can be identified in leaves and stems, with only one species exclusively restricted to leaves (Sisal-associated Unclassified virus A), two species uniquely found in the stems (Sisal-associated Botourmiavirus A and Sisal-associated Botourmiavirus B), and other five viral species were restricted to the roots (Sisal-associated Unclassified dsRNA virus A, Sisal-associated Unclassified virus C, Sisal-associated Virgavirus D, Sisal-associated Alphaflexivirus C, and Sisal-associated Alphaflexivirus B). ...
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... species have shown similarity with nine mycoviral species at the amino acid level with BLASTx. Indications that these species are also mycoviruses include not only their similarity with known species and phylogeny but also their distribution in plant organs, which is especially higher in roots for such species, making the roots significantly distinct from stem and leaf samples ( Figure 5E). The mycoviruses sharing similarities with our species are Agaricus bisporus virus 5 and Agaricus bisporus virus 6 [64], Alternaria alternata virus 1 [65], Aspergillus foetidus dsRNA mycovirus [66], Aspergillus heteromorphus alternavirus 1 [67], Podosphaera prunicola tobamo-like virus [68], Macrophomina phaseolina tobamo-like virus [69], Botryosphaeria dothidea tobamo-like virus (unpublished), and Stemphylium lycopersici mycovirus (unpublished) ( Table 1). ...
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... of our likely mycoviral species reveals four species, out of nine, belonging to the family Virgaviridae, the family with the second-highest number of represented contigs ( Figure 5E). This viral family is commonly described as only infecting plants [76]; however, the first mycovirus belonging to this family was described by [69] and later by Pandey et al. (2018) [68], and, thus, corroborating our findings. ...
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... viral family is commonly described as only infecting plants [76]; however, the first mycovirus belonging to this family was described by [69] and later by Pandey et al. (2018) [68], and, thus, corroborating our findings. As also described by Pandey et al. (2018) [68], Podosphaera prunicola tobamo-like virus shows similarity with Macrophomina phaseolina tobamo-like virus, such as our proposed new species, Sisal-associated Virgavirus C, which is one of the most highly expressed and dominating viral species in our samples ( Figures 5E and 6), especially in the roots (Figure 5E), while Sisal-associated Virgavirus D shares similarity with Podosphaera prunicola tobamo-like virus, unique to the roots. These results reinforce the assertion that the higher species richness in the root system is related to the microbial species associated with sisal varieties. ...
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... viral family is commonly described as only infecting plants [76]; however, the first mycovirus belonging to this family was described by [69] and later by Pandey et al. (2018) [68], and, thus, corroborating our findings. As also described by Pandey et al. (2018) [68], Podosphaera prunicola tobamo-like virus shows similarity with Macrophomina phaseolina tobamo-like virus, such as our proposed new species, Sisal-associated Virgavirus C, which is one of the most highly expressed and dominating viral species in our samples ( Figures 5E and 6), especially in the roots (Figure 5E), while Sisal-associated Virgavirus D shares similarity with Podosphaera prunicola tobamo-like virus, unique to the roots. These results reinforce the assertion that the higher species richness in the root system is related to the microbial species associated with sisal varieties. ...
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... the aforementioned Citrus virga-like virus and Cowpea Mild Mottle virus, the other 12 species sharing similarity with our discoveries are plant-infecting viruses. The most prominent of those species, as seen in Figure 5E, is Sisal-associated Closterovirus A, the only representative species of the family Closteroviridae, which is the most represented viral family in our samples, sharing similarity with Pistachio ampelovirus A, first described by Al Rwahnih et al. (2018) [79]. This species is present in all the samples and plant taxa ( Figures 5E and 6) but is especially highly expressed in A. sisalana ( Figure 5E). ...
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... most prominent of those species, as seen in Figure 5E, is Sisal-associated Closterovirus A, the only representative species of the family Closteroviridae, which is the most represented viral family in our samples, sharing similarity with Pistachio ampelovirus A, first described by Al Rwahnih et al. (2018) [79]. This species is present in all the samples and plant taxa ( Figures 5E and 6) but is especially highly expressed in A. sisalana ( Figure 5E). This +ssRNA family has been described by Rubio et al. (2013) [80] as transmitted through mealybugs, aphids, or the whitefly, which is also likely responsible for the presence of CPMMV in our samples. ...
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... most prominent of those species, as seen in Figure 5E, is Sisal-associated Closterovirus A, the only representative species of the family Closteroviridae, which is the most represented viral family in our samples, sharing similarity with Pistachio ampelovirus A, first described by Al Rwahnih et al. (2018) [79]. This species is present in all the samples and plant taxa ( Figures 5E and 6) but is especially highly expressed in A. sisalana ( Figure 5E). This +ssRNA family has been described by Rubio et al. (2013) [80] as transmitted through mealybugs, aphids, or the whitefly, which is also likely responsible for the presence of CPMMV in our samples. ...
Citations
... Plant viruses are naturally transmitted through a variety of pathways (e.g., pollen, seeds, and vectors) [24,25]. High-density cultivation of plants can promote viral spread [26]. The diversity of viruses in ecosystems can be influenced by various factors [27]. ...
... However, these methods may be inappropriate for examining samples co-infected with multiple viral agents [38,39]. Alternatively, HTS can efficiently detect and identify multiple viruses, even in the absence of prior knowledge about viral sequences [21,26]. Advances in nucleic acid isolation protocols and the availability of HTS technologies have enabled researchers to comprehensively study the viruses associated with a specific host [39,40]. ...
Abstract
Background
Viruses have notable effects on agroecosystems, wherein they can adversely affect plant health and cause problems (e.g., increased biosecurity risks and economic losses). However, our knowledge of their diversity and interactions with specific host plants in ecosystems remains limited. To enhance our understanding of the roles that viruses play in agroecosystems, comprehensive analyses of the viromes of a wide range of plants are essential. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) techniques are useful for conducting impartial and unbiased investigations of plant viromes, ultimately forming a basis for generating further biological and ecological insights. This study was conducted to thoroughly characterize the viral community dynamics in individual plants.
Results
An HTS-based virome analysis in conjunction with proximity sampling and a tripartite network analysis were performed to investigate the viral diversity in chunkung (Cnidium officinale) plants. We identified 61 distinct chunkung plant-associated viruses (27 DNA and 34 RNA viruses) from 21 known genera and 6 unclassified genera in 14 known viral families. Notably, 12 persistent viruses (7 DNA and 5 RNA viruses) were exclusive to dwarfed chunkung plants. The detection of viruses from the families Partitiviridae, Picobirnaviridae, and Spinareoviridae only in the dwarfed plants suggested that they may contribute to the observed dwarfism. The co-infection of chunkung by multiple viruses is indicative of a dynamic and interactive viral ecosystem with significant sequence variability and evidence of recombination.
Conclusions
We revealed the viral community involved in chunkung. Our findings suggest that chunkung serves as a significant reservoir for a variety of plant viruses. Moreover, the co-infection rate of individual plants was unexpectedly high. Future research will need to elucidate the mechanisms enabling several dozen viruses to co-exist in chunkung. Nevertheless, the important insights into the chunkung virome generated in this study may be relevant to developing effective plant viral disease management and control strategies.
... Plant viruses are naturally transmitted through a variety of pathways (e.g., pollen, seeds, and vectors) [24,25]. High-density cultivation of plants can promote viral spread [26]. The diversity of viruses in ecosystems can be influenced by various factors [27]. ...
... However, these methods may be inappropriate for examining samples co-infected with multiple viral agents [38,39]. Alternatively, HTS can efficiently detect and identify multiple viruses, even in the absence of prior knowledge about viral sequences [21,26]. Advances in nucleic acid isolation protocols and the availability of HTS technologies have enabled researchers to comprehensively study the viruses associated with a specific host [39,40]. ...
Background
Viruses have notable effects on agroecosystems, wherein they can adversely affect plant health and cause problems (e.g., increased biosecurity risks and economic losses). However, our knowledge of their diversity and interactions with specific host plants in ecosystems remains limited. To enhance our understanding of the roles that viruses play in agroecosystems, comprehensive analyses of the viromes of a wide range of plants are essential. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) techniques are useful for conducting impartial and unbiased investigations of plant viromes, ultimately forming a basis for generating further biological and ecological insights. This study was conducted to thoroughly characterize the viral community dynamics in individual plants.
Results
An HTS-based virome analysis in conjunction with proximity sampling and a tripartite network analysis were performed to investigate the viral diversity in chunkung (Cnidium officinale) plants. We identified 61 distinct chunkung plant-associated viruses (27 DNA and 34 RNA viruses) from 21 known genera and 6 unclassified genera in 14 known viral families. Notably, 12 persistent viruses (7 DNA and 5 RNA viruses) were exclusive to dwarfed chunkung plants. The detection of viruses from the families Partitiviridae, Picobirnaviridae, and Spinareoviridae only in the dwarfed plants suggested that they may contribute to the observed dwarfism. The co-infection of chunkung by multiple viruses is indicative of a dynamic and interactive viral ecosystem with significant sequence variability and evidence of recombination.
Conclusions
We revealed the viral community involved in chunkung. Our findings suggest that chunkung serves as a significant reservoir for a variety of plant viruses. Moreover, the co-infection rate of individual plants was unexpectedly high. Future research will need to elucidate the mechanisms enabling several dozen viruses to co-exist in chunkung. Nevertheless, the important insights into the chunkung virome generated in this study may be relevant to developing effective plant viral disease management and control strategies.
... According to the 2020 ICTV taxonomy report, Virgaviridae contains seven genera including Furovirus, Hordeivirus, Goravirus, Pecluvirus, Pomovirus, Tobamovirus, and Tobravirus. In recent years, several virga-like viruses have been discovered from transcriptomic or metatranscriptomic sequencing without confirmed hosts, which were recognized as not belonging to any of the above known genera; therefore, they were assigned as unclassified Virgaviridae species (Thekke-Veetil et al., 2020;Quintanilha-Peixoto et al., 2021;Chiapello et al., 2020;Li et al., 2022a). In the present phylogenetic tree, these unclassified Virgaviridae species were included in one 54 % supported cluster (Fig. 6B), and two highly supported subclusters (a and b) were included. ...
Mycoviruses have been described in all major fungal taxonomic groups. There has been much focus on commercially cultivated basidiomycetous macrofungi, while attention to viruses from ascomycetous macrofungi is lacking. Therefore, in this study, we conducted viral screening against fungal mycelia that were regenerated from ascomycetous macrofungi using agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE) and fragmented and primer-ligated dsRNA sequencing (FLDS). Among the 57 isolates, four isolates were detected with virus-like bands through screening with AGE, and subsequent FLDS analyses determined the viral sequences. Other isolates without virus-like bands in AGE were pooled to check for viral sequences. Using FLDS analysis, a total of seven new mycoviruses were identified, including two double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses belonging to Quadriviridae and Partitiviridae, five positive-sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses (three belonging to Mitoviridae, one belonging to Endornaviridae and one belonging to Virgaviridae). All viruses characterized in this study are novel species, and all the hosts are firstly reported to be infected by mycoviruses. These findings expand our knowledge of the diversity of mycoviruses from macrofungi in natural environments.
... This stress can result from nutritional deficiencies, the pressures induced by drought, or even mechanical damage arising from plant manipulation during leaf removal for fiber extraction or sucker elimination. Notably, the influence of an insect, such as Bemisia tabaci (Quintanilha-Peixoto et al., 2021), or yet by an infestation of pests, such as Dysmicoccus spp. (Wang et al., 2022), could also contribute to this injury-induced phase. ...
... The process by which bole rot disease changes from an asymptomatic to a symptomatic phase is complex and yet to be described. However, disease progression might be triggered by nutritional deficiency and/or other abiotic stresses such as water deficit, or even changes in the microbiome (Medina, 1954;Duarte et al., 2018;Quintanilha-Peixoto et al., 2021). ...
Sisal bole rot disease is the major phytosanitary problem of Agave plantations in Brazil. The disease is caused by a cryptic species of Aspergillus: A. welwitschiae. To date, the only way to diagnose the disease was to observe external symptoms, visible only when the plant is already compromised, or through the isolation and sequencing of the pathogen, which requires cutting the entire plant for bole tissue sampling. We developed a new primer set based on a unique gene region of A. welwitschiae, which can detect the phytopathogenic strains through PCR directly from sisal leaves. Using the new marker to study the main sisal-producing areas in Brazil, we discovered a troublesome situation. The main producing areas of this crop had a pathogen incidence of 78%–88%. The dispersion index indicates a regular spatial pattern for disease distribution, suggesting that the use of contaminated suckers to establish new fields may be the main disease-spreading mechanism. Altogether, the high incidence of the pathogen, the unavailability of clean plants, the unpredictability of disease progression, and the low investment capacity of farmers reveal the vulnerability of this sector to a potential phytosanitary crisis. By correlating the disease symptomatology with soil nutritional traits, we suggest that higher potassium availability might decrease visual symptoms, while phosphorus may have the opposite effect. Also, we observe a potential cultivar effect, suggesting that common sisal may be more susceptible than hybrid cultivars (especially H400). This new molecular tool is a significant advance for understanding the disease, enabling the implementation of a monitoring program and studies that may lead to pathogen control strategies and changes in the Brazilian production model.
... Thus, by this route, fungal viruses can be transmitted to vegetatively incompatible strains or different fungal species, as demonstrated in our study (85). In fact, fungal virus-related sequences were often found in the virome of plant samples infected with plant viruses (111)(112)(113) ...
The large genetic and structural divergences between plants and fungi may hinder the transmission of viruses between these two kingdoms to some extent. However, recent accumulating evidence from virus phylogenetic analyses and the discovery of naturally occurring virus cross-infection suggest the occurrence of past and current transmissions of viruses between plants and plant-associated fungi. Moreover, artificial virus inoculation experiments showed that diverse plant viruses can multiply in fungi and vice versa. Thus, virus cross-infection between plants and fungi may play an important role in the spread, emergence, and evolution of both plant and fungal viruses and facilitate the interaction between them. In this review, we summarize current knowledge related to cross-kingdom virus infection in plants and fungi and further discuss the relevance of this new virological topic in the context of understanding virus spread and transmission in nature as well as developing control strategies for crop plant diseases.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 10 is September 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Bemisia tabaci (Quintanilha-Peixoto et al., 2021), or yet by an infestation of pests, such as Dysmicoccus spp. (Wang et al., 2022), could also contribute to this injury-induced phase. ...
... The process by which bole rot disease changes from an asymptomatic to a symptomatic phase is complex and yet to be described. However, disease progression might be triggered by nutritional deficiency and/or other abiotic stresses such as water deficit, or even changes in the microbiome (Medina, 1954;Duarte et al., 2018;Quintanilha-Peixoto et al., 2021). ...
For centuries, agaves have played a crucial role in semiarid regions worldwide, often serving as the only viable crop option in these challenging environments. As we transition into a bioeconomy era, agaveculture emerges as a crucial component of sustainable development strategies worldwide. The vast genetic diversity within this genus offers immense potential for bioenergy, bioproducts, and climate-resilient agriculture. Brazil has a long tradition in producing agaves developed for fiber and can become a leader in this field. However, the market crisis triggered by synthetic fibers has impacted the development of this crop in the country, both from a scientific and technological standpoint. Long-term projects, like the Agave breeding program, have been discontinued, and the production system has become reliant on agro-extractivism. To restore this crop to its prominent role and unlock the full economic and environmental benefits of agaves, genetic resources must be developed. This thesis, structured into four chapters, explores the significance of genetic resources in shaping a new era of agaveculture. The first chapter highlights the technological challenges that must be overcome to establish agaves as a new bioethanol feedstock, its potential to alleviate land competition and enhance food and energy security. In the second chapter, using transcriptomics, we have identified several molecular mechanisms and targets that breeders can pursue to better understand biomass architecture and abiotic stress responses in Agave. Moving on to the third chapter, we organize a new germplasm bank based on rescued cultivars from the previous Agave breeding program and characterize the plants using molecular markers and morphophysiological traits. Finally, the fourth chapter introduces the development of a molecular diagnostic tool for sisal bole rot disease, the main phytosanitary problem affecting Agave in the country. The molecular epidemiology using this test highlights the fragility of the current production system but also indicates possible correlations between disease symptomatology and nutritional status, as well as potential effects of different cultivars. These genetic resources empower future researchers to develop improved varieties of agaves that are more resilient to climate change, have higher productivity, and possess desired traits for specific applications.
... Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed using the sequences of the P1, P2 or P3 proteins of the GaJV-1 and CaJV-1 or -2 reported here, and those of the closest viruses identified by BLASTP analysis in GenBank. These references include citrus virga-like and citrus jingmen-like viruses [16], grapevine-associated jiviviruses 1 and 2 [17] and some newly reported agents, such as mastic virus Y (MVY) identified in Pistacia lentiscus (MT334608-10), sisal-associated virgavirus B from the virome of sisal plants [30,31], soybean thrips Jivi-like viruses 1 and 2 from suction trap collected soybean thrips (Neohydatothrips variabilis) [32] and Aspergillus lentulus jivivirus 1 from a culture of the human fungal pathogen Aspergillus lentulus [33]. The tree for the RdRp encoding P2 protein is shown in Figure 5 while those for the P1 and P3 proteins are, respectively, shown in Figures 6 and S3. ...
... The viruses of the cluster involving GaJV-1, CaJV-1 and -2 and MVY were all identified from plant samples. However, related viruses were identified from fungal culture (AlJV-1, [31]) or from insects (STJlV-1 and -2, [32]). In particular, the Aspergillus lentulus data from which AlJV1 was identified correspond to the analysis of a pure fungal culture supernatant and showed deep coverage (601x to 1985x) of the five identified contigs encoding proteins with homologies to those of GaJV-1, strongly supporting the notion that JaJV1 is indeed a fungal virus, and that such may therefore also be the case for other jiviviruses. ...
Jiviruses are a group of recently described viruses characterized with a tripartite genome and having affinities with Virgaviridae (RNA1 and 2) and Flaviviridae (RNA3). Using a combination of high-throughput sequencing, datamining and RT-PCR approaches, we demonstrate here that in grapevine samples infected by grapevine-associated jivivirus 1 (GaJV-1) up to 7 additional molecules can be consistently detected with conserved 5′ and 3′ non-coding regions in common with the three previously identified GaJV-1 genomic RNAs. RNA4, RNA5, RNA6, RNA7, RNA8 and RNA10, together with a recombinant RNArec7-8, are all members of a family sharing a previously non recognized conserved protein domain, while RNA9 is part of a distinct family characterized by another conserved motif. Datamining of pecan (Carya illinoinensis) public transcriptomic data allowed the identification of two further jiviviruses and the identification of supplementary genomic RNAs with homologies to those of GaJV-1. Taken together, these results reshape our vision of the divided genome of jiviviruses and raise novel questions about the function(s) of the proteins encoded by jiviviruses supplementary RNAs.
... Agave sisalana and some varieties of the Agave genus, commonly known as "sisal" [7,8], are plants of economic interest associated with the natural fibers extracted from their leaves [9]. Brazil is the largest producer of these fibers, with the cultivation areas mostly concentrated in the semiarid region of Brazil, mainly in the state of Bahia, which accounts for 93% of national production and 40% of world production of sisal, and, to a lesser extent, in Paraíba and other states in the Northeastern region of Brazil [10,11]. ...
Aspergillus welwitschiae causes bole rot disease in sisal (Agave sisalana and related species) which affects the production of natural fibers in Brazil, the main worldwide producer of sisal fibers. This fungus is a saprotroph with a broad host range. Previous research established A. welwitschiae as the only causative agent of bole rot in the field, but little is known about the evolution of this species and its strains. In this work, we performed a comparative genomics analysis of 40 Aspergillus strains. We show the conflicting molecular identity of this species, with one sisal-infecting strain sharing its last common ancestor with Aspergillus niger, having diverged only 833 thousand years ago. Furthermore, our analysis of positive selection reveals sites under selection in genes coding for siderophore transporters, Sodium‑calcium exchangers, and Phosphatidylethanolamine-binding proteins (PEBPs). Herein, we discuss the possible impacts of these gene functions on the pathogenicity in sisal.
... org/ ictv-repor ts/ ictv_ online_ report/ posit ive-sense-rna-virus es/w/ virga virid ae), this virus family includes seven genera: Furovirus, Hordeivirus, Goravirus, Pecluvirus, Pomovirus, Tobamovirus, and Tobravirus. However, in recent years, many new viruses that could not be assigned to any of the established genera in the family Virgaviridae have been discovered in various plant hosts [10][11][12], and these new viruses form a separate group of unclassified virga-like viruses. ...
... To obtain accurate and comprehensive information, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) was performed on symptomatic leaf tissue. Sequencing library construction, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), quality trimming, assembly, and gene functional [6], while the other contig (3436 nt) shared 48.63% pairwise amino acid sequence identity with sisal-associated virgavirus C [11]. A total of 8945 viral reads of TaAVLV1 were detected and accounted for 0.02% in the dataset according to the company's subsequent analysis. ...
In this work, we report the detection of a novel single-strand RNA virus from wheat, tentatively named "Triticum aestivum-associated virga-like virus 1" (TaAVLV1). Further characterization revealed that the complete genome of TaAVLV1 is divided into two segments, RNA1 and RNA2, which are 3530 and 3466 nt in length, excluding their respective polyA tails, and each contains only one open reading frame (ORF). The ORF of RNA1 encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), while the ORF of RNA2 encodes a putative protein with methyltransferase and helicase domains. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the RdRp of TaAVLV1 is closely related to those of members of the unclassified virga-like virus group in the family Virgaviridae. Thus, we have identified TaAVLV1 as a putative novel virga-like virus belonging to the family Virgaviridae.
This chapter focuses on the significance of biorefineries in the successful implementation of bioeconomy, highlighting their function as integrated processing units for multiple stages of biomass valorization and high-value product generation. Biorefineries are classified into first-(1G), second-(2G), and third-generation (3G) biorefineries based on the type of biomass used. Although 1G biorefineries remain prevalent, the need for sustainable alternatives to biomass supply to ensure continuous production is emphasized. Key aspects of the sustainability of biomass-based biorefineries, such as continuous biomass production, active involvement of farmers in new business models, and promotion of sustainable agricultural practices, are discussed. The importance of including farmers in decision-making and establishing policies for equitable income distribution along the value chain is also emphasized. The development of diverse biorefineries is crucial for a sustainable bioeconomy.
