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Variation in the stoichiometric AFR in ternary blends and deviation of the stoichiometric AFR from that of anhydrous E85 at an equivalent volumetric energy density for various ternary blend ethanol concentrations.
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When appropriately sourced, bioethanol and biodiesel fuels provide an opportunity for nations to increase their energy independence or to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by supplying energy-dense fuels which are miscible with fossil-derived gasoline and diesel. These fuels can be used in low concentrations in vehicles with no modifications; in the...
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... B term in equation (2) is constant for a given target binary-ternary blend and gives the volume frac- tion of methanol when all the ethanol is removed from the ternary blend, i.e. when V e =V = 0, as Figure 2 shows that the AFRs of the range of mix- tures delineated by all vertical lines in Figure 1 vary by a maximum of 0.12% relative to that of E85 across the range of ethanol volume fraction levels in the ternary blend mixtures. Appendix 2 gives the relationships used to plot these data. ...
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... the model employed by the present authors, the liquid-phase activity coefficients g i of each species are calculated via the Wilson equation using the activity coefficients at infinite dilution for each binary pair obtained from the revised modified separation of cohe- sive energy density (MOSCED) model of Lazzaroni et al. 33 The vapour-phase fugacity coefficients f i for each species are calculated from the virial equation of state where the second virial coefficient of each species within the mixture is calculated using the correlation described by Smith et al. 34 The interaction parameters for each binary pair are estimated from pure compo- nent critical data using the correlation given by Chueh and Prausnitz; 35 the exception to this is for alkane- alcohol systems for which values of 0.15 are assigned following the work by Tsonopoulos et al. 36 The model was well validated against literature data for a range of gasoline and gasoline-oxygenate blends (see Appendix 6 for further details of the numerical model and exam- ples of the validation results). Figure 12. Measured and predicted distillation profiles for the RF-02-03 gasoline and the E85 iso-stoichiometric GEM blends. ...
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... experiment. rate program to be more suitable for a blend with a large quantity of a single low-molecular-mass compo- nent returned the results presented in Figure 12, which are considered to be reliable. Some of the other results presented by Turner et al. 18 are further discussed below for completeness. ...
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... from tests on a prototype tri-FFV employing a physical sensor, it was known that metha- nol and ethanol cause different responses in a physical sensor. This is illustrated in the data presented in Figure 20, which was gathered on the vehicle used by Pearson et al. 45 when it was fuelled with binary gasoline-ethanol or gasoline-methanol fuels of various compositions. The measured ethanol data correlate well with information published by the supplier of this sensor. ...
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... inspection of Figure 20 from the stand- point of the ternary blends discussed above suggests that the responses may not be very different for blends with the same stoichiometry. Consider the two limiting cases at the same stoichiometry as E85: blend A (G15 E85 M0) and blend D (G44 E0 M56). ...
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... the two limiting cases at the same stoichiometry as E85: blend A (G15 E85 M0) and blend D (G44 E0 M56). From the data used to plot Figure 20, the sensor responses for these two binary blends would be 134 Hz and 129 Hz respec- tively, i.e. a difference of the order of 4%, and thus extremely close (see the horizontal dashed lines on Figure 20). Indeed from this observation it would not be unreasonable to suppose that all the potential iso- stoichiometric blends at 9.7:1 stoichiometry would have sensor outputs between these two limit values. ...
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... the two limiting cases at the same stoichiometry as E85: blend A (G15 E85 M0) and blend D (G44 E0 M56). From the data used to plot Figure 20, the sensor responses for these two binary blends would be 134 Hz and 129 Hz respec- tively, i.e. a difference of the order of 4%, and thus extremely close (see the horizontal dashed lines on Figure 20). Indeed from this observation it would not be unreasonable to suppose that all the potential iso- stoichiometric blends at 9.7:1 stoichiometry would have sensor outputs between these two limit values. ...
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... standard reference fuels required at octane numbers above 100 require the inclusion of tetra- ethyl lead (TEL). TEL is extremely toxic and there- fore most routine laboratories will not keep TEL in stock and therefore will either use the compres- sion ratio guide table only, which is considered to Figure 20. Physical sensor responses measured during the work conducted by Pearson et al. 45 Note the different responses for binary blends of ethanol and methanol in bulk gasoline due to the different levels of polarity of the two molecules; also note that blends A (G15 E85 M0) and D (G44 E0 M56) have substantially the same responses. ...
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... details of the tests reported by Turner et al. 14,15 were not available and thus it is not clear how reliable or accurate they might be. These results are plotted as a function of the methanol content in Figure 21 for com- parison. The results do not have good absolute value agreement even though the same base gasoline and alcohol blending components were used for both sets of blends.. ...
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... was done in order to ensure that the final blend RON values would lie below 100, and therefore they would not present the pitfalls discussed above and allow robust measurement in a routine laboratory. The RONs and MONs of these blends were analysed and the results are given in Table 3 and plotted against the methanol content in Figure 22. The range of octane numbers is relatively small, although there is a generally decreasing trend as the methanol content increases. ...
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... differences tend therefore to counteract each other when using the molar blending rules with the resulting RON and MON values as all the blends are quite similar. Figure 23 presents the octane numbers of the iso- stoichiometric E85-eq21 blends, utilising the molar blending rules to calculate the octane numbers. It is again clear that the octane number decreases slightly with increasing methanol content; however, the decreases in the RON and the MON over the entire blending range are only 1.1 and 1.2 respectively. ...
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... fuels used to manufacture E85-equivalent blends may have a lower octane number than that used in this study. Molar blending rules were then used to calculate the RONs and the MONs for E85-equivalent iso- stoichiometric GEM blends with the gasoline fraction which have RON values of 85 and 75 and MON values of 75 and 65; these results are presented in Figure 24. It is apparent that, the lower the octane number of the gasoline fraction, the larger the effect of the decrease in the octane number with increasing methanol content. ...
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... startability should not be expected to be impacted negatively on any of these blends. The methanol-containing blends have a significantly elevated RVP and thus may lead to Figure 24. Octane number as a function of the methanol content for E85-equivalent iso-stoichiometric GEM blends calculated with molar blending rules with a range of hypothetical lower-octane-number gasoline components from the work by Turner et al. 18 Figure 23. ...
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... number as a function of the methanol content for E85-equivalent iso-stoichiometric GEM blends calculated with molar blending rules with a range of hypothetical lower-octane-number gasoline components from the work by Turner et al. 18 Figure 23. Octane number as a function of the methanol content for the E85-equivalent iso-stoichiometric GEM blends calculated with molar blending rules from the work by Turner et al. 18 Figure 22. Octane number as a function of the methanol content for E15-eq19 iso-stoichiometric GEM blends from the work by Turner et al. 18 increased emissions; also the carbon canister vapour traps may be overloaded, leading to fugitive hydrocar- bon emissions. ...
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... of the volume fraction and the mole fraction Figure 25 shows the relationship between the volume fraction and the mole fraction for several different alco- hol fuels mixed with a standard-specification gasoline pump fuel. It can be seen that for methanol and ethanol there is considerable difference between the concentra- tions defined in terms of the volume fraction and the mole fraction. ...
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... a 50:50 volumetric mixture of metha- nol and gasoline, almost 80% of the molecules are those of the alcohol. It is also apparent from Figure 25 that for the higher alcohols there is significantly less difference between the mole fractions and the volume fractions. For mix- tures of the particular gasoline used here and octanol (C 8 H 17 OH) there is virtually no difference between the volume fractions and the mole fractions. ...
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... performance of the present authors' distillation model was assessed against a wide range of literature data for ethanol and methanol blended fuels of various complexities. Figure 27(a), (b) and (c) show the numeri- cal predictions for the distillation curves of indolene, indolene + 10 vol % ethanol and indolene + 10 vol % methanol against the experimental data obtained by Furey. 31 Figure 28 shows the model predictions for the more complex case of a full-boiling-range gasoline (repre- sented by a 17-component model) with 5 vol % ethanol and 10 vol % ethanol, validated against the experimen- tal data obtained by Martini et al. 57 The results shown in Figures 27 and 28 indicate that the present authors' zero-dimensional thermodynamic distillation model is able to represent the ASTM D86 distillation characteristics of both the base fuel and the non-ideal interactions of the base fuel with ethanol and methanol with good accuracy. ...
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... 27(a), (b) and (c) show the numeri- cal predictions for the distillation curves of indolene, indolene + 10 vol % ethanol and indolene + 10 vol % methanol against the experimental data obtained by Furey. 31 Figure 28 shows the model predictions for the more complex case of a full-boiling-range gasoline (repre- sented by a 17-component model) with 5 vol % ethanol and 10 vol % ethanol, validated against the experimen- tal data obtained by Martini et al. 57 The results shown in Figures 27 and 28 indicate that the present authors' zero-dimensional thermodynamic distillation model is able to represent the ASTM D86 distillation characteristics of both the base fuel and the non-ideal interactions of the base fuel with ethanol and methanol with good accuracy. ...
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The ever increasing energy demand has accelerated the research and development of renewable energy sources which can eventually decrease the dependence on fossil fuel reserve. Biodiesel, a renewable energy source, has received considerable attention as an alternative fuel for last few decades. In this study, biodiesels produced from two feedstocks...
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... Alcohols, such as ethanol and methanol, have gained significant attention as viable alternatives for use in conjunction with gasoline in spark ignition (SI) engines [9]. Most commonly they can be configured as binary mixtures of one of the alcohols with gasoline, or sometimes jointly together as ternary mixtures [10]. In this paper, the term 'EXX' refers to a binary mixture of ethanol in gasoline with XX volume percentage of ethanol, 'MXX' is used as the corresponding case for a binary mixture of methanol in gasoline, and 'GEMXX' is used as the corresponding case for a ternary mixture of ethanol-methanol in gasoline. ...
Several types of alternative fuels have been developed to replace fossil fuels. Alcohols, such as ethanol and methanol, can be blended with gasoline for spark ignition (SI) engines. High octane number and oxygen content in alcohol can increase combustion efficiency. Therefore, our current research investigates the effect of high concentrations of ethanol and methanol mixed in 90 RON gasoline. The mixture was implemented in a 150 cc single-cylinder four-stroke spark ignition (SI) engine without any modifications. Engine testing was carried out with wide-open throttle (WOT) and different engine speeds from 4000 to 10000 rpm. Torque, power, and Air Fuel Ratio (AFR) were measured during experiments on a chassis dynamometer. Our test results found that the higher the methanol fraction in the mixture, the lower the torque generated. To improve engine performance, further research is needed on modified engines so that optimal conditions can be identified.
... • Sugars from crops, including cassava, corn, hemp, potatoes, and sugarcane, are commonly fermented to produce bioethanol. ICE, SI [27,113,125,155,156] Biodiesel • Biodiesel has only a slightly lower energy content in comparison with petroleum diesel (approximately 10%) • Low brake thermal efficiency ICE, CI [113,157] Methanol • The thermal efficiency of gasoline engines would be improved after methanol addition. ...
... Flex-fuel vehicles. [156,162,163] • Decrease in power and brake thermal efficiency. ...
Despite the growing sales of electric vehicles and electrification as a means to alleviate the growing problem of climate change, it is largely overlooked that internal combustion engine-driven vehicles still account for 99.8% of the global transportation fleet. These vehicles pose a significant demand for liquid fuels, which is typically met by fossil fuels whose combustion is known to exacerbate the climate crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted the energy industry, particularly the transportation sector (aviation, maritime, and road transport), largely because of travel restrictions globally. While this period of relative inactivity had relatively reduced the climate impact, it also caused a severe economic crisis. Hence, travel restrictions cannot be viewed as means to solve transportation emissions. While moving towards alternative cleaner propulsion technologies to propel vehicles is a perfectly good strategy, the problem of running the legacy fleet in a carbon-neutral way could assist in decarbonizing the sector as a whole. This emphasizes that the need for sustainable and environment-friendly fuels is inevitable. This article discusses the potential of clean fuels in providing a net zero-carbon pathway that is largely overlooked and critically reviews the recent trends and advancements with clean fuel applications in aviation, marine, and road transportation. Altogether, promising future choices include ammonia blends with ethers, hydrogen, gasoline-ethanol-methanol ternary blends, methanol-to-gasoline, Fischer-Tropsch diesel and kerosene, and natural gas. The article also makes some recommendations on policy action that takes a balanced approach to address the climate crisis and have a meaningful impact on the environment.
... The study that will be carried out aims to formulate the volume composition of methanol and ethanol that needs to be added to RON 89 gasoline to achieve the target of RON 92, 95, and 98. The equation used is Linear Molar Calculation (LMC) which is converted into equation 3. LMC is generally used to find the RON value of a mixture of gasoline, ethanol, and methanol (GEM), while equation 1 is used to find the density of the GEM mixture [10]. ...
Fossil fuels still dominate future energy needs, while oil production has shown a declining trend over the past ten years. One solution to this condition is using new and renewable energy sources. In the transportation sector, one of the most common environmental problems resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels in internal combustion engines is emission. Mixing gasoline with alcohol is based on this problem. This paper calculates the composition of gasoline-ethanol-methanol with target RON 92, 95, and 98 with RON-based 89. The composition of this blend is calculated with linear molar calculation. Blending ethanol and methanol in gasoline also influences their chemical and physical properties. The characteristics, i.e., research octane number (RON) and density of gasoline-ethanol-methanol fuel blends of RON target 92, 95, and 98, are presented. The results of this calculation will be compared with the experiment. RON is one of the critical characteristics of the internal combustion engine’s compression ratio and combustion quality. The obtained result revealed that the average difference from the calculation with the experiment on RON is 0.73, and the density is 0.36.
... Another development direction in order to reduce pollutant emissions involves combustion engine technologies using alternative fuels and fuel blends. Fuel blends based on ethanol, methanol or water for gasoline engines [61,62] or blends based on ethanol or glycerol-based ethers for diesel engines [63,64] are an important issue in this area. This direction of development also makes it possible to use hydrogen as a fuel additive for conventional internal combustion engines. ...
Motor vehicles are the backbone of global transport. In recent years, due to the rising costs of fossil fuels and increasing concerns about their negative impact on the natural environment, the development of low-emission power supply systems for vehicles has been observed. In order to create a stable and safe global transport system, an important issue seems to be the diversification of propulsion systems for vehicles, which can be achieved through the simultaneous development of conventional internal combustion vehicles, electric vehicles (both battery and fuel cell powered) as well as combustion hydrogen-powered vehicles. This publication presents an overview of commercial vehicles (available on the market) powered by internal combustion hydrogen engines. The work focuses on presenting the development of technology from the point of view of introducing ready-made hydrogen-powered vehicles to the market or technical solutions enabling the use of hydrogen mixtures in internal combustion engines. The study covers the history of the technology, dedicated hydrogen and bi-fuel vehicles, and vehicles with an engine powered by a mixture of conventional fuels and hydrogen. It presents basic technology parameters and solutions introduced by leading vehicle manufacturers in the vehicle market.
... This is because conventional fuel at increasing load increases the temperature inside the combustion chamber, which slightly increases the NOx emissions. ethanol has in build oxygen atom in its chemical structure and the addition of H2O increases the oxygen concentration inside the combustion chamber, which results in the complete combustion of fuel and thereby reducing the temperature and decreases the NOx emissions [17]. In Figure 7, the CO emissions show very fewer emissions at the lower loads on the engine. ...
In this contribution, the investigation conducted on alternative fuels includes methanol 20% blended with gasoline 80% and emulsion-based fuel with the composition of gasoline 80%, ethanol 15%, and H2O 5% are compared with 100% conventional gasoline fuel. These fueled single-cylinders spark ignition engine is studied for checking their performance and emission characteristics as per future emission norms. This work is performed on One-dimensional AVL Boost Simulation Software. The simulations predicted the performance and emission characteristics were far lesser than conventional 100% gasoline. These fuels meet the strict emission regulations of Euro VII. The main purpose of this investigation is to use alternative fuels to improve the performance and emission characteristics of the single-cylinder spark ignition engine and reduce the consumption of fossil fuel reserves. This investigation led to the conclusion that by using methanol 20% in 80% gasoline and micro-emulsion, fuel improves the power, BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption), thermal efficiency and combustion properties of the single-cylinder spark-ignition engine. The CO, HC and NOx emissions were also reduced for alternative fuel than 100% gasoline fuel. The novel water-based emulsion fuel showed the lowest value of NOx emissions as compared to blended 20% methanol with 80% gasoline and 100% gasoline fuel.
... Distillation is the process of separating components in a blend on different boiling points. This test was performed separating ethanol from the gasoline-ethanol blends to describe the boiling point of the blends [8]- [10]. The result from the test corresponded to the volume blends of the ethanol contained in the fuel blends. ...
... There are moral concerns regarding how cobalt in particular is obtained, too. Therefore, due to the fact that alcohols can either be used as pure fuels in their own right or blended in many ways with existing fossil hydrocarbon fuels [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24], there is, in the authors' opinion, considerable merit in continuing to investigate them as a potential future automotive energy vector. ...
... Collectively, they are referred to as 'GEM' blends; and specifically "GXX EYY MZZ", where XX, YY and ZZ are the volume percentages of the three individual components, respectively. The process by which such blends can be formulated and how they can offer a route to increased penetration of renewable energy in the fuel pool has been discussed before [17][18][19][20]22,24]. Both engine and vehicle tests of such blends have been reported, the latter showing that when ternary blends are configured with the same stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (AFR) as E85 (this nominally being a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline by volume)-approximately 9.7:1-then they are undetectable by a flex-fuel vehicle engine management system when such a vehicle has already been calibrated to be capable of taking any proportion of gasoline and E85 put into its fuel tank [17,18]. ...
... All of these previous reports show that if followed, these ternary blending rules permit a method of simply creating fuel blends equivalent to any original binary gasoline-ethanol mixture. Recently, Pearson and co-workers [24] have defined more completely the blending rules for such an approach, and have shown the effect of water on AFR and volumetric LHV if this is left in ethanol (which could be very beneficial from a production energetics point of view). (Note that unlike all the other alcohols, methanol does not form an azeotrope with water, and consequently simple distillation is sufficient to dry it fully. ...
This paper follows on from an earlier publication on high-blend-rate binary gasoline-alcohol mixtures and reports results for some equivalent ternary fuels from several investigation streams. In the present work, new findings are presented for high-load operation in a dedicated boosted multi-cylinder engine test facility, for operation in modified production engines, for knock performance in a single-cylinder test engine, and for exhaust particulate emissions at part load using both the prototype multi-cylinder engine and a separate single-cylinder engine. The wide variety of test engines employed have several differences, including their fuel delivery strategies. This range of engine specifications is considered beneficial with regard to the “drop-in fuel” conjecture, since the results presented here bear out the contention, already established in the literature, that when specified according to the known ternary blending rules, such fuels fundamentally perform identically to their binary equivalents in terms of engine performance, and outperform standard gasolines in terms of efficiency. However, in the present work, some differences in particulate emissions performance in direct-injection engines have been found at light load for the tested fuels, with a slight increase in particulate number observed with higher methanol contents than lower. A hypothesis is developed to explain this result but in general it was found that these fuels do not significantly affect PN emissions from such engines. As a result, this investigation supplies further evidence that renewable fuels can be introduced simply into the existing vehicle fleet, with the inherent backwards compatibility that this brings too.
... The iso-stoichiometric air fuel ratio property is essential for the formulated blends to be used as drop-in fuels and not to cause engine operation to stray outside the pre-determined limits of air to fuel ratio designed to operate on flex fuel vehicles [15]. ...
... Therefore, the present work aims to formulate and investigate the E30 equivalent isostoichiometric blends on engine performance, combustion and emission characteristics of the SI engine. The basic formulation of iso-stoichiometric blends has been done using the mathematical formulation given by Pearson et al. [15] in Appendix 2. Also, for the determination of blended fuel properties such as stoichiometric air to fuel ratios, lower heating values and octane number, the same reference has been followed. ...
This work presents the concept of ternary blends of gasoline, ethanol and methanol (GEM) in which stoichiometric air to fuel ratio is controlled to 13.2, same as that of conventional binary E30 (Gasoline 70% + Ethanol 30% (v/v)) fuel blend. The formulated E30 equivalent ternary blends have approximately the same energy density, lower heating value and octane number as target binary E30 blend such that they can be a drop-in alternative to it. The experimental work was performed to investigate the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of PFI SI engine using E30 equivalent GEM blends. The engine tests were conducted at constant load while varying the engine speed from 1700 to 3300 rpm by varying the throttle position. The performance, emission and combustion results were measured and compared with pure gasoline. The results show that formulated GEM blends have similar brake thermal efficiency, in-cylinder pressure and net heat release as binary E30 blend and are improved when compared to pure gasoline. It is also noted that exhaust emissions such as Carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) show decreased values and increase in Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) for blended fuels compared to pure gasoline due to oxygenated nature of alcohol fuels.
... A simple expression can be derived to quantify the volume fractions of methanol, gasoline and ethanol required to generate iso-energetic ternary mixtures [141]. These mixtures have the same volumetric energy density as a target binary blend of gasoline and ethanol. ...
Transportation of people and goods largely relies on the use of fossil hydrocarbons, contributing to global warming and problems with local air quality. There are a number of alternatives to fossil fuels that can avoid a net carbon emission and can also decrease pollutant emissions. However, many have significant difficulty in competing with fossil fuels due to either limited availability, limited energy density, high cost, or a combination of these. Methanol (CH3OH) is one of these alternatives, which was demonstrated in large fleet trials during the 1980s and 1990s, and is currently again being introduced in various places and applications. It can be produced from fossil fuels, but also from biomass and from renewable energy sources in carbon capture and utilization schemes. It can be used in pure form or as a blend component, in internal combustion engines (ICEs) or in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). These features added to the fact it is a liquid fuel, making it an efficient way of storing and distributing energy, make it stand out as one of the most attractive scalable alternatives. This review focuses on the use of methanol as a pure fuel or blend component for ICEs. First, we introduce methanol historically, briefly introduce the various methods for its production, and summarize health and safety of using methanol as a fuel. Then, we focus on its use as a fuel for ICEs. The current data on the physical and chemical properties relevant for ICEs are reviewed, highlighting the differences with fuels such as ethanol and gasoline. These are then related to the research reported on the behaviour of methanol and methanol blends in spark ignition and compression ignition engines. Many of the properties of methanol that are significantly different from those of for example gasoline (such as its high heat of vaporization) lead to advantages as well as challenges. Both are extensively discussed. Methanol's performance, in terms of power output, peak and part load efficiency, and emissions formation is summarized, for so-called flex-fuel engines as well as for dedicated engines. We also briefly touch upon engine hardware changes and material compatibility. Methanol fuel reforming using engine waste heat is discussed, as a potential route towards further increases in efficiency and decreases in emissions. Next to the experimental work, research efforts into modelling the behaviour of methanol as a fuel are also reviewed, including mixture formation, normal and abnormal combustion. Methanol's properties such as high latent heat, fast burning velocity, high knock-resistance and no carbon-to-carbon bonds are shown to leverage engine technology developments such as increased compression ratios, downsizing and dilution; enabling much increased engine efficiencies. Finally, we point out the current gaps in knowledge to indicate which areas future research should be directed at.
... GEM blends have been shown to be a possible drop-in alternative to high ethanol gasoline blends such as E85 [23,24,25,26]. Their drop-in nature (i.e. ...
... The results from four fuels are presented in this work, all of which were supplied by Shell Global Solutions. The base fuel was an EN228 compliant gasoline representative of UK market fuel (containing up to 5 % v/v ethanol); three other oxygenate blends were tested: E20, E85, and GEM (a blend of gasoline, ethanol, and methanol designed to be isostoichiometric with E85) -the GEM blend tested here is approximately the same as "Blend C" tested by Pearson et al. [24] and Turner et al. [26]. All of the blends tested are so-called match blends, which are more commercially representative, as opposed to splash blends, and hence do not have the same base gasoline. ...
Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) engines are increasingly available in the market. Such engines are known to emit more Particulate Matter (PM) than their port-fuel injected predecessors. There is also a widespread use of oxygenate fuels in the market, up to blends of E85, and their impact on PN emissions is widely studied. However the impact of oxygenate fuels on PN emissions from downsized, and hence highly-boosted engines is not known. In this work, PN emissions from a highly boosted engine capable of running at up to 35 bar Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) have been measured from a baseline gasoline and three different oxygenate fuels (E20, E85, and GEM – a blend of gasoline, ethanol, and methanol) using a DMS500. The engine has been run at four different operating points, and a number of engine parameters relevant to highly-boosted engines (such as EGR, exhaust back pressure, and lambda) have been tested – the PN emissions and size distributions have been measured from all of these. The results show that the oxygenate content of the fuel has a very large impact on its PN emissions, with E85 giving low levels of PN emissions across the operating range, and GEM giving very low and extremely high levels of PN emissions depending on operating point. These results have been analysed and related back to key fuel properties.
