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... information on aggregate production and use provide some guidelines and correlations that can be used to estimate and model long-term demand for aggregate. Future demand for construction aggregate in a region can be estimated from population density and the size of the planning area ( figure 6). Demand projections for aggregate is for broad planning and projection purposes, and should be viewed as benchmark estimates with large uncertainties of approximately 25 percent. ...
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... curve in figure 9 is an estimate of the aggregate production rate that meets the average aggregate resource use of a county as a function of population density. The resource use model is shown in figure 6. Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. ...
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... counties, 1985-1995. The trend line for sustained production was calculated using the average resource use model shown in figure 6, an average quarry production rate of 700,000 metric tons per year (771,000 tons per year) and an average quarry lifetime of 40 years. ...
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... a result, the regional aggregate marketplace evolves into a mosaic of producing and non-producing areas defined by county and local political boundaries. In the Mid-Atlantic region, about one-third of the counties produce less than 67 percent of their estimated use of aggregate (estimated use of aggregate as a function of population density and county size is shown in figure 6). About one-half of the counties export aggregate primarily to adjacent urban or urbanizing counties, or rural counties with a small infrastructure base. ...
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... 2. --County-level status in production of aggregate resources in the Mid-Atlantic region (percent by number of counties and area of counties). Aggregate use is estimated from the population density and area relations shown in figure 6. Import status is assigned to counties with aggregate production less than 67 percent of estimated use. ...
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Citations
... International and large companies may be responsible for a larger volume of sand mining, are more able to mine in compliance with environmental regulations and with newer technologies . In countries with more regulations and barriers to attaining mining permits, the industry moves towards consolidation and vertical integration (Robinson and Brown, 2002;Torres et al., 2021). Although this can help to increase efficiencies and reduce price volatility, these large, often multinational, companies also have more lobbying power within governments . ...
After water, sand is the most used resource on earth. Although this humble resource is seldom thought about, its diverse usage in construction, infrastructure, glass, electronics, and personal products puts the resource in high demand worldwide. Mostly driven by demand for concrete, the extraction rates and resulting environmental devastation of sand mining are massive, affecting ecosystems and threatening long-term supply. Poor regulations, by both industry and government authorities have resulted in a thriving sand market often involving ‘sand mafias’. The need for supply chain reforms is clear, and several initiatives offer promises to bring about mandatory domestic and international norms, as well as more effective industry self-regulation. Yet, more significant reforms are needed on both the supply and demand sides to avoid further degrading sand-based ecosystems and running out of what remains a crucial building block for ‘modern life’.
... 29 With increased barriers to obtaining mining permits, there is ongoing industry consolidation and vertical integration, which leverages the economies of scale and benefits from transnationality to reduce revenue cyclicity and volatility. 30 In Great Britain, for instance, the aggregates industry is dominated by five multinational companies operating in allied sectors such as asphalt, cement, and ready-mix concrete sales and contracting, which have increased their production share from 50% in 1991 to 70% in 2009. 31 Other agents are trade associations that develop professional industry standards and lobby for or against regulations, and civil engineers, architects, and owners that influence demand through design and product choices. ...
... Crushed rock prices experience a long-term decline due to technological innovation. 66 Where suitable rock deposits are available, the initial reliance on natural sands shifts toward crushed rock, 30 as in China, Europe, and North America, where it has become the primary source of aggregates. 67,68 In Europe, instream sand mining was common in the 1950s to 1980s until more stringent regulations, nature and cultural heritage conservation, and competition with alternative sources led mining rates to drop to 0.1% of aggregates production. ...
Sand, gravel, and crushed rock, together referred to as construction aggregates, are the most extracted solid materials. Growing demand is damaging ecosystems, triggering social conflicts, and fueling concerns over sand scarcity. Balancing protection efforts and extraction to meet society's needs requires designing sustainable pathways at a system level. Here, we present a perspective on global sand sustainability that shifts the focus from the mining site to the entire sand-supply network (SSN) of a region understood as a coupled human-natural system whose backbone is the physical system of construction aggregates. We introduce the idea of transitions in sand production from subsistence mining toward larger-scale regional supply systems that include mega-quarries for crushed rock, marine dredging, and recycled secondary materials. We discuss claims of an imminent global sand scarcity, evaluate whether new mining frontiers such as Greenland could alleviate it, and highlight three action fields to foster a sustainable global sand system.
... Furthermore, due to the high bulk mass and low value, transport costs for aggregates are highly s ignific ant (truck haul for 30 miles can double the cost of the aggregate to the end user (Robinson and Brown, 2002)) and aggregates do not tend to travel far unless rail or barge transport links are convenient. Consequ ently, it would be much more relevant to consider abiotic depletion potential at the regional level (Habert et al., 2010), where the impacts would undoubtedly be far more significant. ...
Final Technical Report Criteria and supporting rationale
... Buildings and roadway construction are two major 4 industries using these materials, mostly in the form of crushed stone, sand, and gravel. In 2018, 5 the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reports that 2.2 billion tons of sand, gravel, and crushed stone 6 were produced in the U.S. at a value of $25.3 billion, out of which 970 million tons were attributed 7 ...
... However, these materials are comparatively heavy 17 with specific gravities ranging from 1.5 to over 2.5. As a result, aggregate transportation can incur 18 as much expenditure as extraction and processing operations [6]. Depending on gas price and 19 location, hauling processed aggregates from the point of origin (i.e. ...
... quarry) to the point of use (i.e. 20 construction site) can cost over $0.18 per metric ton-km, or $110 per hour of trucking [6]. 21 Traditional methods of estimating aggregate stockpile volumes include truck ticket records and 22 geodetic surveys. ...
This study introduces a remote sensing application using satellite imagery to survey a network-scale aggregate stockpile inventory. First, a real scale aggregate quarry site was surveyed using a small Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (sUAV) to produce digital terrain models that enabled analysis of aggregate pile geometry. Second, a lab experiment was designed and performed to validate the applicability of close-range Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry for measuring aggregate piles' physical properties such as volume and density. The other part of the lab experiment delved into direct measurement of aggregate density under varying compaction efforts. These experimental results, in conjunction with some simplifying assumptions, enabled the calculation of aggregate stockpile volumes and estimated weights from satellite imagery. We estimated that an inventory of 4.4 and 1.1 million metric tons of crushed aggregates and Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP), respectively, stockpiled in Washington State for asphalt production in 2017. The merit of producing such database was further showcased in an example on the economic and environmental impacts of material transportation. We approximated that hauling aggregates from quarry plants to construction sites within Washington State incurs a cost of about $50 thousand to over $4 million, consumes about 0.25 to 20 TJ of energy, and emits 20 to over 1,500 tons of CO2-eq per asphalt plant annually.
... Concurrently, 1.48 billion tons of crushed stone was consumed in the United States in 2016, nearly 76% of which was used in road construction and maintenance [3]. As population density increases, loss of viable land for aggregate mining in populous regions will result in longer hauling distances of aggregate material and an increase in expenses associated with road construction [4,5]. ...
... In-situ concrete recycling eliminates the most capital-and carbon-intensive components of pavement construction: mining and transportation of virgin aggregate to the construction site [5]. Substituting RCA for virgin aggregate conserves finite natural aggregate resources, thereby reducing the energy consumption (20%), water usage (11%), carbon dioxide emissions (16%), and life-cycle economic cost (21%) associated with highway construction [15,16]. ...
The prevalence of construction and demolition (C&D) waste and the concurrent demand for construction aggregate presents the opportunity to recycle C&D waste materials as substitutes for virgin aggregate. Commonly, recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is used as base course in pavement construction. Environmentally responsible applications of RCA must consider the high pH leachate and trace element leaching risks reported in the literature. This review presents the methodology, results, and limitations of existing laboratory and field investigations of RCA leachate chemistry. Long-term highway field studies of RCA leachate illustrate that an initially high leachate pH approaches neutral within approximately one to two years of construction. Conversely, laboratory investigations of RCA leachate pH using batch reactor leaching tests and column leaching tests measure consistently high leachate pH (pH > 10). The discrepancies between field and laboratory measurements of RCA leachate pH suggest that the current laboratory methodology inadequately describes leachate conditions in the field. The authors recommend that future laboratory investigations consider intermittent wetting and drying cycles, eliminate particle abrasion, employ relevant contact times, and consider additional environmental processes that reduce leachate pH such as soil acidity and carbonation.
... The construction aggregate should be mined near urban areas due to the higher costs of transportation over long distances [78]. The above-mentioned results of mineral composition as well as chemical contaminations of the present dune sands (Table 3) indicate enough stable mineralogically and chemically without any alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR) when theses dune sands are used as construction material fine aggregates. ...
The evaluation of aeolian desertification of sand dunes in north Assuit, Middle Egypt, has been achieved throughout a variety
of detailed field investigations and laboratory measurements. The study area lies in hot dry desert climatic conditions where
the sand dunes migration represents an effective threat cultivated lands, reclaimed lands, asphaltic roads and the systems of
human distribution. Its mean annual rainfall is about 51mm. Except the Nile Valley, Egypt is mostly considered as dry desert
lands so about 4% of its surface area is under plough. The study barchans are mainly composed of poorly graded sands and
consist of fine sand, medium sand and a negligible amount of coarse sand, silts and clays. Compositionally, the studied sand
dunes are mainly consist of quartz, rock fragments and negligible amounts of feldspars with the absence of any chemically
active constitutes (e.g. chert, flint, chalcedony and dolomite). These sands are also free of organic matter. The removal of
dune sands in hazardous sites considers a short-term solution method of the aeolian desertification problem.
... The construction aggregate should be mined near urban areas due to the higher costs of transportation over long distances [78]. The above-mentioned results of mineral composition as well as chemical contaminations of the present dune sands (Table 3) indicate enough stable mineralogically and chemically without any alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR) when theses dune sands are used as construction material fine aggregates. ...
The evaluation of aeolian desertification of sand dunes in north Assuit, Middle Egypt, has been achieved throughout a variety of detailed field investigations and laboratory measurements. The study area lies in hot dry desert climatic conditions where the sand dunes migration represents an effective threat cultivated lands, reclaimed lands, asphaltic roads and the systems of human distribution. Its mean annual rainfall is about 51mm. Except the Nile Valley, Egypt is mostly considered as dry desert lands so about 4% of its surface area is under plough. The study barchans are mainly composed of poorly graded sands and consist of fine sand, medium sand and a negligible amount of coarse sand, silts and clays. Compositionally, the studied sand dunes are mainly consist of quartz, rock fragments and negligible amounts of feldspars with the absence of any chemically active constitutes (e.g. chert, flint, chalcedony and dolomite). These sands are also free of organic matter. The removal of dune sands in hazardous sites considers a short-term solution method of the aeolian desertification problem.
... Local conflicts are characterized by discrepancies regarding localized environmental costs to communities versus the dispersed economic benefit for the whole society (Baker and McLellan 1992). However, it is often argued that if mining operations are prevented, regional costs will increase, shifting the problems to more truck traffic, noise, accidents, and more hydrocarbons being released into the atmosphere (Robinson and Brown 2002;Langer et al., 2004). In Hoa Binh, farmers living and working close to quarries use negative environmental (traffic, noise, vibration dust) and socioeconomic impacts (fears regarding lowered property values) together with nature protection arguments (visual intrusion and landscape damage) to oppose mining operations 22 . ...
... However there are not too many opponents to mining aggregates in Hoa Binh. Quarries are scattered and located in low density areas, confirming Robinson and Brown's (2002) findings, opposition to quarries "often grows in proportion to the size and intensity of the operation". Some researchers (Drew et al., 2002;Bloodworth et al., 2009) argue that this discussion is highly influenced by public perceptions or "socio-cultural constraints" (Robinson and Brown 2002) and the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome, often exceeding reality as the industry has incorporated technology to reduce and eliminate hazards associated with extraction. ...
... Quarries are scattered and located in low density areas, confirming Robinson and Brown's (2002) findings, opposition to quarries "often grows in proportion to the size and intensity of the operation". Some researchers (Drew et al., 2002;Bloodworth et al., 2009) argue that this discussion is highly influenced by public perceptions or "socio-cultural constraints" (Robinson and Brown 2002) and the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome, often exceeding reality as the industry has incorporated technology to reduce and eliminate hazards associated with extraction. However in Hoa Binh, since the small scale aggregate industry cannot afford the use of technology to reduce and eliminate many of the environmental impacts associated with the extraction activities, such impacts are experienced primarily by farmers and local residents. ...
As the world’s demand for construction materials is expected to continue, there is an increased drive to examine how potential wealth from the construction material industry can be translated into local economic, social and environmental opportunities. This is particularly relevant nowadays in Vietnam. According to available forecasts (Great Hanoi Master Plan by 2030), many investments in the construction sector (residential commercial buildings and public infrastructure) are expected.
The objectives of this report are fourfold:
1.To analyse the economic relevance of natural aggregates and the driving forces for its production.
2.To identify and analyse the economic benefits of aggregates extraction in Vietnam
3.To analyse the instruments (normative and indicative) identifying and regulating the economic, social and environmental impacts of natural aggregate mining in Vietnam
4.To identify the financial obligations of aggregate mining producers during exploration, exploitation and closure phases in Vietnam
... Transportation distances and costs are major factors determining the regional spread of markets for bulk building materials, including recycled aggregates. According to [41], road haulage costs "can equal the production (mining and processing) costs of crushed stone aggregates at truck haul distances of 30 to 50 miles" (approx 48 to 80 km). Wilbrun and Thomas [42] calculate a trucking distance of 56 km to be the break-even point at which the cost of transporting the lower layers of road base material exceeds the purchase price of the product. ...
... Miliutenko [43] claims maximum transport distances of between 30 and 50 km. Although transportation by rail or water is much cheaper [41], road haulage is often the only viable alternative for transporting construction aggregate [44]. Therefore, it can be assumed that average transport distances of construction materials are less than 50 km. ...
Coefficient-based, bottom-up material flow analysis is a suitable tool to quantify inflows, outflows and stock dynamics of materials used by societies, and thus can deliver strategic knowledge needed to develop circular economy policies. Anthropogenic stocks and flows are mostly of bulk nonmetallic mineral materials related to the construction, operation and demolition of buildings and infrastructures. Consequently, it is important to be able to quantify circulating construction materials to help estimate the mass of secondary materials which can be recovered such as recycled aggregates (RA) for fresh concrete in new buildings. Yet as such bulk materials are high volume but of low unit value, they are generally produced and consumed within a region. Loops are thus bounded not only by qualitative and technical restrictions but also spatially to within regions. This paper presents a regionalized continuous MFA (C-MFA) approach taking account of these restrictions of local consumption, quality standards and technical limitations, illustrated using the example of Germany. Outflows and inflows of stocks are quantified at county level and generalized by regional type, considering demand and supply for recycled materials. Qualitative and technical potentials of recycling loops are operationalized by defining coefficients to reflect waste management technologies and engineering standards. Results show that 48% of outflows of concrete and bricks are suitable for high-quality recycling, while 52% of outflows do not fulfill the quality requirement and must be recovered or disposed of elsewhere. The achievable inflow to RA is limited by the building activity as well as the requirements of the construction industry, e.g. the RA fraction of fresh concrete must not exceed 32%. In addition, there exist spatial disparities in construction across the country. In Germany, such disparities mean that there will be a shortfall in RA of 6.3 Gt by the year 2020, while the technically available but unusable RA (due to a regional mismatch of potential supply and demand) will total 3.2 Gt. Comprehensive recycling strategies have to combine high-quality recycling with other lower-grade applications for secondary raw materials. Particularly in the case of building materials, essential constraints are not only technical but also local conditions of construction and demolition. These interrelations should be identified and integrated into a comprehensive system to manage the social metabolism of materials in support of circular economy policies.
... This number is purely theoretical, and does not take into account the locations at which the construction demolition waste occurs and where it could be used. It is important to note that shipping rubble can quickly become uneconomical, making local quarrying a more viable choice (Robinson and Brown, 2002). ...
Recent years have seen a growing interest in the potential for a more circular economy and the application of material flow accounting to increase knowledge on materials accumulating in in-use stocks. This study assesses the dynamics of stocks and flows related to road networks, which are a significant destination for recycled construction and demolition waste.
We develop a bottom-up stock-driven model to assess long-term inflows, outflows, and materials accumulated in roads to assess requirements for construction minerals of the road network in the United States. We estimate material requirements using the expansion of the transport network as a driver, and scheduled maintenance and technological coefficients from engineering literature to assess input and output flows. We apply the model to historical data for the United States road network from 1905 to 2015 and show that the current material stock of construction minerals in the road network of the United States is 15.1 billion tonnes, growing 21-fold since 1905.
During the 20th century, the material requirements of road construction have declined from 35% to 15% of economy-wide material consumption of non-metallic minerals in the United States. The share of roads in economy-wide in-use stocks has also declined from 17% to 13%. This shows that roads, once established, remain in place and most material flows are due to extending and refurbishing them, while the construction of completely new roads makes up a much smaller part of the material flows related to the road network.
