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Upper Scioto River watershed in Ohio showing locations of the wetlands in this study and the location of the Port Columbus Airport where precipitation data were obtained
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Water levels were recorded weekly from six natural vernal pools and 10 created vernal pools at two forested wetland complexes
in central Ohio. Vernal pool median water depth and duration of inundation were significantly greater at the created vernal
pools than at the natural vernal pools (α=0.05, P<0.05). The average period of inundation for create...
Citations
... where p < 1 represents a convex basin and p > 1 corresponds to a concave basin. A similar approach was used by Gamble and Mitsch [112] for the calculation of wetland area (Amax), depth (dmax), and volume (Vmax) for depressional wetlands, as shown in Equation (2). ...
Microtopography plays an important role in various ecological, hydrologic, and biogeochemical processes. However, quantifying the characteristics of microtopography represents a data-intensive challenge. Over the last decade, high-resolution or close-range remote sensing data and techniques have emerged as powerful tools to quantify microtopography. Traditional field surveys were mostly limited to transects or small plots, using limited sets of observations but with the decrease in the cost of close-range remote sensing technologies and the increase in computing performance, the microtopography even in forested environments can be assessed. The main objective of this article is to provide a systematic framework for microtopographic studies using close-range remote sensing technologies. This is achieved by reviewing the application of close-range remote sensing to capture microtopography and develop microtopographic models in natural ecosystems. Specifically, to achieve the main objectives, we focus on addressing the following questions: (1) What terrain attributes represent microtopography in natural ecosystems? (2) What spatial resolution of terrain attributes is needed to represent the microtopography? (3) What methodologies have been adopted to collect data at selected resolutions? (4) How to assess microtopography? Current research, challenges, and applicability of close-range remote sensing techniques in different terrains are analyzed with an eye to enhancing the use of these new technologies. We highlight the importance of using a high-resolution DEM (less than 1 m2 spatial resolution) to delineate microtopography. Such a high-resolution DEM can be generated using close-range remote sensing techniques. We also illustrate the need to move beyond elevation and include terrain attributes, such as slope, aspect, terrain wetness index, ruggedness, flow accumulation, and flow path, and assess their role in influencing biogeochemical processes such as greenhouse gas emissions, species distribution, and biodiversity. To assess microtopography in terms of physical characteristics, several methods can be adopted, such as threshold-based classification, mechanistically-based delineation, and machine learning-based delineation of microtopography. The microtopographic features can be analyzed based on physical characteristics such as area, volume, depth, and perimeter, or by using landscape metrics to compare the classified microtopographic features. Remote sensing techniques, when used in conjunction with field experiments/data, provide new avenues for researchers in understanding ecological functions such as biodiversity and species distribution, hydrological processes, greenhouse gas emissions, and the environmental factors that influence those parameters. To our knowledge, this article provides a comprehensive and detailed review of microtopography data acquisition and quantification for natural ecosystem studies.
... Wetland size reduction up to 50% has been predicted to reduce richness by 10-16% in any taxa [84]. The hydroperiod of mitigated wetlands is also important to consider as some amphibians depend on semipermanent wetlands to breed and safely undergo metamorphosis [107]. ...
Wetland mitigation efforts have increased in numbers over the past two decades to combat wetland loss in the United States. Data regarding wetland function such as biodiversity are required to be collected 5-10 years after a project is complete; however, pre-restoration data that can inform the effectiveness of mitigation are often not collected. We conducted pre-restoration surveys on various taxa along or within Ruby Run, a tributary of Deckers Creek in north-central West Vir-ginia, USA, from 2016 to 2020 to determine the baseline relative abundance and diversity within the stream and the associated riparian zone. In five years, we observed 237 species (154 plant, 58 bird, 13 fish, 6 small mammal, and 6 anuran) and 25 families of macroinvertebrates. Seasonal fluctuations in diversity were present, but mean diversity was relatively consistent among years across taxa, except in anurans, where there was a decrease each year. Wetland mitigation efforts should continue to be monitored for success using multiple taxa, because land use change can affect taxa in different ways, resulting in well-rounded assessments that can improve wetland management practices .
... Yet, managing and creating ephemeral wetlands can present challenges. Short-duration hydroperiods are difficult to mimic and wetland creation and restoration efforts seldom produce hydrologically dynamic, and thus ecologically, functioning ephemeral wetlands (Gamble and Mitsch 2009;Moreno-Mateos et al. 2012;Calhoun et al. 2014; but see Strain et al 2017;Rothenberger et al. 2019). However, where managers are available on site, wetlands with water control structures can produce seasonal hydroperiods (i.e., ephemeral wetlands) by adjusting water levels in response to rain events or time of year (Galatowitsch and Van der Valk 1994;Baecher et al. 2018). ...
Loss of wetlands worldwide has necessitated the creation of wetlands to counteract declines of fauna associated with these habitats. Ephemeral wetlands have been disproportionally lost and hydrology of ephemeral wetlands is challenging to restore. Created wetlands with water control structures may be a viable option. In Western Kentucky, we surveyed three ephemeral wetland types [managed open canopy (MOC), unmanaged open canopy (UMOC), and unmanaged closed canopy (UMCC); managed = created wetlands with water control structures] to estimate amphibian richness and occupancy among wetlands, and estimated abundance of three locally common species: Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus), Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), and Crawfish Frog (L. areolatus). In addition, we quantified physical characteristics and water quality among wetland types. Managed Open Canopy wetlands had a greater percent of submergent vegetation than both UMCC and UMOC wetlands, shallower depth at 1.0 m from the wetted wetland edge than UMOC wetlands, and were larger than UMCC wetlands. Mean predicted amphibian species richness and occupancy was highest at larger wetlands (0.15–0.78 ha). Occupancy of three common species was not influenced by management. Estimated abundance of L. areolatus, a species of conservation concern, was higher at MOC wetlands, and conversely, A. maculatum abundance was highest at UMCC wetlands. Larger wetlands had higher estimated abundances of L. areolatus and L. sphenocephalus. Our results suggest that created, open canopy wetlands managed for hydroperiod have similar species richness to unmanaged ephemeral wetlands. Furthermore, these managed wetlands provide habitat for a species of concern in Kentucky (i.e., L. areolatus).
... Intensive restoration strategies and wetland creation de novo often require a substantial degree of environmental modification, which may cause BH due to the creation of recurring modified soil conditions and simplified wetland geometry (Campbell et al. 2002, Brooks et al. 2005. For example, the management of hydrology in wetlands for the maintenance of standardized inundation periods required by regulatory agencies has led to the creation of wetlands that are typically wetter and more hydrologically static than natural wetlands (National Research Council [NRC] 2001, Brooks et al. 2005, Gamble and Mitsch 2009. The resultant loss of hydrological variability can lead to homogenous biotic communities (Campbell et al. 2002, Brooks et al. 2005. ...
The anthropogenic degradation of natural ecological communities can cause biodiversity loss in the form of biotic homogenization (i.e., reduced β‐diversity). Biodiversity offsetting practices, such as compensatory wetland mitigation, may inadvertently cause biotic homogenization if they produce locally homogenous or regionally recurring communities. The fact that compensation wetlands often resemble degraded wetlands suggests that potential impacts to β‐diversity are likely. Yet, it is unknown how high‐quality, low‐quality (degraded), and compensation wetlands compare in terms of β‐diversity. We compared the β‐diversity of high‐quality, low‐quality, and compensation wetlands at local and regional scales. β‐diversity was quantified as the average distance to group centroids in multivariate space based on pairwise comparisons of community composition. The local spatial structure of β‐diversity was assessed using species turnover across plots. Indicator species analysis was used to describe compositional differences potentially contributing to differences in β‐diversity. Overall, the β‐diversity of compensation sites did not differ from high‐quality or low‐quality natural wetlands. However, compensation wetlands had a high degree of internal turnover along the hydrological gradient, which culminated in homogenous zones in the wettest areas. Compared to high‐quality wetlands, low‐quality wetlands had significantly lower β‐diversity at local scales, but significantly greater β‐diversity at regional scales. Indicator species results showed that compensation wetlands were distinguished by low conservation value species typically found in old fields and waste areas. This analysis also indicated that the invasive grass Phalaris arundinacea was indicative of low‐quality and compensation wetlands. This species is likely contributing to differing patterns of β‐diversity between high‐quality and low‐quality wetlands. These results indicate that conclusions regarding β‐diversity depend on scale and scope of analysis. Particularly, the unique architecture of compensation wetlands makes conclusions regarding within‐site β‐diversity dependent on the observer's position along the hydrological gradient. Additionally, while we conclude that compensation wetlands are not contributing to biotic homogenization at the regional scale, these wetlands are distinct from both high‐quality and low‐quality wetlands in their composition and structure. Therefore, assessments of the overall success of wetland mitigation programs should acknowledge the reality of these differences.
... Efforts to improve wildlife habitat and mitigate for wetland loss have led to attempts to construct vernal wetlands; however, hydroperiod of constructed wetlands often does not mimic that of natural ephemeral wetlands. Constructed wetlands often have longer hydroperiods than natural wetlands, despite sometimes being smaller in surface area (Denton & Richter, 2013;Drayer & Richter, 2016;Gamble & Mitsch, 2009). Depression depth, underlying soil type, soil compaction, groundwater connectivity, and evapotranspiration of local vegetation affect pool hydrology (Brooks & Hayashi, 2002;Calhoun & deMaynadier, 2008;Calhoun et al., 2014;Gamble & Mitsch, 2009). ...
... Constructed wetlands often have longer hydroperiods than natural wetlands, despite sometimes being smaller in surface area (Denton & Richter, 2013;Drayer & Richter, 2016;Gamble & Mitsch, 2009). Depression depth, underlying soil type, soil compaction, groundwater connectivity, and evapotranspiration of local vegetation affect pool hydrology (Brooks & Hayashi, 2002;Calhoun & deMaynadier, 2008;Calhoun et al., 2014;Gamble & Mitsch, 2009). ...
... With continuing anthropogenic habitat loss and fragmentation, conservation of natural wetlands and mitigation of wetland loss become increasingly important. Constructed wetlands have been shown to differ from natural wetlands in terms of vegetation (Balcombe et al., 2005;Zedler & Callaway, 1999), amphibian habitat (Calhoun et al., 2014;Denton & Richter, 2013;Drayer & Richter, 2016;Gamble & Mitsch, 2009;Kross & Richter, 2016;Vasconcelos & Calhoun, 2006) ...
Wetlands fulfill many vital ecological functions, including providing habitat for amphibians and plants. Some wetlands, known as upland-embedded wetlands (UEWs), are depressional wetlands surrounded completely by upland habitat. This wetland type has been constructed in many areas for conservation and mitigation purposes, but constructed UEWs often do not function equivalently to natural wetlands, and often have different physical and chemical characteristics. In the Daniel Boone National Forest (DBNF), numerous UEWs have been constructed on ridge-tops to benefit game and bat species. Previous studies have shown that many of these constructed wetlands have permanent hydroperiods and different amphibian communities than co-occurring natural ephemeral wetlands. Wood frog and marbled salamander larvae are found almost exclusively in natural wetlands and green frog larvae and eastern newts are found in constructed wetlands. It is currently unknown whether plant communities at these constructed wetlands are similar to those of co-occurring natural wetlands. My objectives were to a) gain a more complete understanding of the amphibian communities in the ridge-top wetland system of the DBNF, b) to determine if previous amphibian findings are generalizable across the large number of UEWs that have been constructed, c) to determine if plant communities differ between natural and constructed UEW sites, d) to understand the environmental and habitat variables that influence plant communities, and e) to synthesize previous findings with my own research to make management and research recommendations for the constructed UEW system in the DBNF.
I measured amphibian catch-per-unit effort and wetland habitat variables at 48 wetlands (10 natural, 6 previously-studied constructed, and 32 randomly-selected constructed). I used Kruskal-Wallis tests, generalized linear models, and nonmetric multidimensional scaling to compare conditions among wetland types and to visualize amphibian communities. Natural wetlands were associated with wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus) and marbled salamanders (Ambystoma opacum) and constructed wetlands were associated with green frogs (L. clamitans), eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens), and spotted/Jefferson salamanders (A. maculatum, A. jeffersonianum). Four-toed salamanders (Hemidactylium scutatum), cricket frogs (Acris crepitans), toads (Anaxyrus spp.), and chorus frogs (Pseudacris spp.) showed no clear patterns related to wetland construction history. Constructed wetlands had higher amphibian richness and diversity than natural wetlands. Hydroperiod was a major driver of community composition. The introduction of permanent water sources has allowed permanent-wetland obligate species, including newts and green frogs, to colonize the UEW system. These species prey on wood frog eggs and larvae and increase the threat of disease introduction and transmission. My findings supported previous research in the system, indicating that this pattern is representative of the more than 500 constructed wetlands throughout the Cumberland Ranger District. With amphibian declines due to habitat loss, constructed and restored wetlands provide important breeding habitat. Under some climate models, hydroperiods of existing ephemeral wetlands are projected to shorten, disrupting breeding cycles and causing larval death. It is important that constructed wetlands provide habitat that is both structurally and functionally similar to natural reference habitat.
I evaluated differences in plant communities at 10 natural and 10 constructed upland-embedded wetlands in the DBNF. I estimated cover class of each understory species in several plots at each wetland and performed visual surveys to capture total species richness at each site. I also measured habitat variables at these sites. Using Mann-Whitney U tests, I found that natural and constructed wetlands differed significantly (α = 0.05) regarding total and nonnative species richness, which were higher at constructed wetlands; and mean coefficient of conservatism, floristic quality, and percent canopy closure, which were higher at natural wetlands. Using cluster analysis and nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) with post-hoc PERMANOVA comparisons, I determined that understory vegetative communities were significantly different between wetland types. Permanent hydroperiod and a history of disturbance at constructed wetlands have resulted in these sites having lower floristic quality, lower ecological conservatism, and more invasive species than natural wetlands. Closed canopy at natural sites increases presence of shade-tolerant understory species. More research is needed to separate the effects of construction history, canopy closure, and hydroperiod on understory communities, richness, and floristic quality.
Management and additional research are recommended in the UEW system in the DBNF. Research should address amphibian and plant communities at natural and constructed UEWs throughout all districts of the DBNF, including population dynamics of marbled salamanders, effects of landscape and geologic features on wetland hydrology, and detection and mapping of undocumented UEW sites. Management should focus on conserving existing natural UEWs, reducing the number and density of constructed UEWs, altering a subset of constructed wetlands to encourage natural-type conditions, and removing invasive species from wetland sites. Amphibian community and habitat characteristics should be assessed to select candidate wetlands for alteration or removal. Methods could include draining wetlands by altering dams and shortening hydroperiods by decompacting soil, lowering dams, and planting trees. Post-alteration, plant and amphibian communities should be monitored for at least six years. Prudence and planning are urged in all wetland construction and alteration projects to ensure that the constructed wetlands will meet desired ecological goals and not disrupt existing ecosystem structures.
... Thus, the methodology of a proper success control is still disputed [29]- [32]. We assume that the hydrological and biogeochemical functions of CWs can be achieved by state-of-the-art technologies and that their success can easily be measured by well-established methodologies [33], [34]. However, biodiversity is a more complex issue, which is characterized by fluctuations of population size and species composition within communities. ...
... Ephemeral ponds are among the most difficult freshwater ecosystems to create or restore primarily because of their unique hydrological and ecological properties (Gebo & Brooks, 2012). Since ephemeral ponds are susceptible to degradation and loss, organisms dependent on these water bodies are particularly vulnerable (Gamble & Mitsch, 2009;Gebo & Brooks, 2012). One factor which makes it difficult to conduct ephemeral ponds surveys is that they are often not mapped due to their relatively small size and variable hydro-period. ...
Ephemeral ponds are vulnerable aquatic habitats which are difficult to protect given their dynamic nature and sensitivity to degradation during dry periods. Little information is available on these habitats in austral regions, with almost no information on food-web structure and complexity. The study aimed to assess trophic interactions among dominant organisms in an ephemeral pond food web, and investigate the importance of autochthonous and allochthonous carbon, using 13C and 15N isotopes. Results of the investigation suggest that the food web comprised four trophic levels, with the top predators being Notonectids (Notonecta sp.) and diving beetles (Cybister tripunctatus (Olivier)). Intermediary trophic levels comprised zooplankton (daphniids and copepodids), macroinvertebrates (e.g. micronectids and molluscs) and tadpoles. Generalist feeders dominated the higher trophic levels (>3) with specialists comprising the lower trophic levels (≤3). The consumers preferred autochthonous fine particulate organic matter, epiphyton and submerged macrophyte organic matter sources over allochthonous sources. Autochthonous organic matter was transferred to the food web via zooplankton and select macroinvertebrates including Micronecta sp. and Physa sp. The food-web structure within the pond appeared to reflect the secondary stage of trophic structural complexity in the evolution of ephemeral ponds over the course of their hydro-period. Full Text Free Read: http://rdcu.be/mQ8I
... Alterations to water availability and regimes are also considered to have contributed to decline at a global scale (e.g. Euliss Jr & Mushet, 2004;Gamble & Mitsch, 2008;Paton & Crouch III, 2002;Snodgrass, Komoroski, Bryan Jr, & Burger, 2000). In Australia there has been a recent focus on water availability for amphibians, including the delivery of water in regulated systems, particularly within the Murray-Darling Basin (Wassens, Hall, Osborne, & Watts, 2010;Wassens & Maher, 2011). ...
... Arrigoni, Brooks, Hunter, & Richter, 2014;Calhoun, Jansujwicz, Bell, & Hunter Jr, 2014;Gamble & Mitsch, 2008;Green, Hooten, Grant, & Bailey, 2013;Paton & Crouch III, 2002) that provide seasonal opportunities for amphibian breeding. Further research into the relevance of ephemeral shallow overflows for Sloane's Froglet lifecycle is required.The use of constructed and "natural" waterbodies by Sloane's Froglet is of interest given the context of its distribution in highly modified landscapes. ...
Sloane’s Froglet, Crinia sloanei, is a threatened and little-known frog with a historical distribution in the Australian states of New South Wales (NSW) and Victoria (Vic). I investigated Sloane’s Froglet distribution and habitat (chapters 2, 3 and 4). As my intention was for the ecological knowledge generated to be applied, I undertook a transdisciplinary case study approach, and used social research methods to explore knowledge exchange between researchers and practitioners, and advocacy (chapters 5 and 6). I discuss the research approach in Chapter 7.
I undertook distribution studies from 2010 to 2013 and established the presence of an important extant population of Sloane’s Froglet in southern NSW and northern Vic, within a highly modified landscape that is quickly becoming more densely settled by humans. I investigated the habitat characteristics of waterbodies occupied by Sloane’s Froglet in winter, its peak breeding period, by comparing the physical and vegetation characteristics of 54 occupied and 40 unoccupied waterbodies. I determined a core calling period for Sloane’s Froglet and detection probabilities for the surveys undertaken. Sloane’s Froglet occupied both constructed and “natural” waterbodies with a variety of features, including differing hydroperiods and surrounding landuse. The waterbodies that Sloane’s Froglet occupied differed from unoccupied waterbodies by containing a greater percent cover of small stem-diameter emergent vegetation; often connecting with adjacent ephemeral shallow overflows; having gently sloping banks; and less bare ground on the banks within two metres of the waterbody. I explored the microhabitat and relative spatial positioning of Sloane’s Froglet within waterbodies by comparing the characteristics of 54 sites around individual male Sloane’s Froglet with 57 randomly selected unoccupied sites. Sloane’s Froglets were found to always call from within the waterbody rather than on the bank, distinguishing them from other sympatric Crinia species. Sloane’s Froglets occurred at sites with less of the site above the water level, and at significantly shallower water depths, than unoccupied sites. Sloane’s Froglets were closer to other Sloane’s Froglets and other calling male frogs at occupied sites, suggesting clustering behaviours. Recommendations for applying this knowledge to benefit Sloane’s Froglet are included in chapters 2 to 4.
I used an autoethnographical approach to describe the advocacy I undertook during the research process and to reflect on knowledge exchange between me as a researcher-advocate, environmental practitioners and the broader community. I further investigated the constraints and enablers of knowledge sharing and utilisation by exploring the insights of 11 environmental practitioners whose work can benefit water-dependent biodiversity. Exploration of the semi-structured interviews suggests that exchange and utilisation of new knowledge is impacted by: how knowledge and knowledge sharing processes are perceived; the media for knowledge communication; continual learning and adaptive management; personal values and the role of advocacy; and, external filters such as political will and institutional processes. The transdisciplinary case study results suggest that my applied research will not be utilised without an advocative approach, preferably with the support of an influential person and validation of an established organisation. In addition, a collaborative research approach or the coproduction of knowledge with practitioners will enable the management application of the ecological research.
In Chapter 7 I present a framework that I call “intentional ecology” based in conservation biology, systems and contemporary feminist theories to support the transdisciplinary and applied research approach. Intentional ecology provides a platform for the use of multiple methodologies and an imperative for action in which knowledge exchange and advocacy are understood as implicit to ecological research with management implications.
... Determination of wetland inundation state (wet or dry) can be both work-intensive and financially prohibitive. Monitoring the inundation state of small wetlands is often accomplished with a staff gauge ($20-60 US depending on length, style and supplier), which is manually monitored daily to monthly to record the water level (Pechmann et al. 1989;Babbitt et al. 2003;Gamble and Mitsch 2009). Automated water level sensors, which function either by a float or pressure measurement system, can also be used to monitor water levels (e.g. ...
Monitoring the inundation state (wet or dry) of wetlands is critical to understanding aquatic community structure but can be costly and labor-intensive. We tested the ability of temperature data from cost-effective iButton data loggers to reflect the inundation state of wetlands in central Missouri, based on our hypothesis that dry ponds would show greater daily temperature variance than ponds that remained inundated with water. We evaluated this method with two experiments in large outdoor mesocosms, and in existing natural wetlands in which we had deployed iButtons. True inundation state from pond visits was compared to predicted inundation state over different temperature variance thresholds expected to delineate wet or dry ponds. We confirmed that the daily temperature variances of dry iButtons were higher than that of iButtons under water, as expected, but that variance was influenced by factors such as canopy cover. We also describe an automated procedure that can be used to determine whether a pond was wet or dry with greater than 80 % accuracy. Using this approach, changes in inundation state, the number of days wet and dry, and the number of drying and filling events can be calculated. Several caveats are also provided that should be considered prior to using this method to maximize the accuracy in assessing inundation state.
... Depth or pool morphology are often used as predictors of hydroperiod, however the relationship between pool size, depth, area and/or volume, and hydroperiod is weak, inconsistent, and difficult to model because of the volume of data required (Brooks and Hayashi, 2002;Calhoun et al., 2003;Boone et al., 2006). Local weather conditions, precipitation (Brooks, 2004;Gamble and Mitsch, 2009), and ground-water exchange (Brooks and Hayashi, 2002) seem to be critical factors affecting hydroperiod. Gamble and Mitsch (2009) suggested soil differences may help explain the variation in hydroperiod between human created and natural pools, but this relationship between soil and hydroperiod has not been well studied in vernal pool ecosystems. ...
... Local weather conditions, precipitation (Brooks, 2004;Gamble and Mitsch, 2009), and ground-water exchange (Brooks and Hayashi, 2002) seem to be critical factors affecting hydroperiod. Gamble and Mitsch (2009) suggested soil differences may help explain the variation in hydroperiod between human created and natural pools, but this relationship between soil and hydroperiod has not been well studied in vernal pool ecosystems. Though hydroperiod prediction is difficult, it may be among the most important factors to understand and determine wetland function (Gamble and Mitsch, 2009); especially as climate change affects vernal pool hydroperiods in the future (Brooks, 2009). ...
... Gamble and Mitsch (2009) suggested soil differences may help explain the variation in hydroperiod between human created and natural pools, but this relationship between soil and hydroperiod has not been well studied in vernal pool ecosystems. Though hydroperiod prediction is difficult, it may be among the most important factors to understand and determine wetland function (Gamble and Mitsch, 2009); especially as climate change affects vernal pool hydroperiods in the future (Brooks, 2009). ...
Vernal pools are isolated ephemeral bodies of water that are often overlooked on the landscape. Despite their temporary nature, these pools are important to forest communities, providing critical breeding habitat for amphibians and an important food and water source for other taxonomic groups including birds, bats, and other terrestrial vertebrates. Sparse information about vernal pools in the upper Midwest, including Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore (PIRO), inhibits conservation. We sampled soil, vegetation, and amphibians in 21 vernal pools in PIRO during spring 2010 to provide quantitative and qualitative evaluation of vernal pool abiotic and biotic characteristics within PIRO to help managers determine which pools to prioritize for conservation. Average vernal pool size sampled was 0.124 ha. Soils had an average of 13.5% carbon and 0.7% nitrogen. Vegetation was diverse within the vernal pools, with 115 vascular plants identified. Five species of amphibians were encountered during our surveys. We created a vernal pool classification system based on: (1) pool depression characteristics (one depression versus many interconnected depressions and whether canopy was open or closed) and (2) vegetation community type. This resulted in five vernal pool types: three herbaceous communities with open canopies and defined circular/elliptical boundaries (classic pools) and two forested closed canopy communities with irregular perimeters and interconnected mini-basins (complex pools). The two forested communities had the highest vegetation species richness, due mostly to greater number of microsites (downed logs, hummocks, etc.) for vegetation. Hydroperiod index and soil carbon were found to correspond to the vegetation classes. Amphibian species richness was highest in the classic pools and the majority of the amphibians encountered were in the sedge community type. This classification system, potentially effective for vernal pools throughout glaciated northeastern North America, will help managers prioritize vernal pools for conservation.
