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Types of diapers: a) Cloth diaper comprising ai) pocket diaper, aii) AIO diaper, aiii) AI2 diaper, b) Disposable diaper, and c) Biodegrade diaper.
Source publication
The disposal of used diapers is a critical eco-technological problem aggravated by the exponential increase of global consumption rate each year. The global production of disposable used diapers increases exponentially and is expected to exceed US$ 71 billion/year by 2022. It was revealed that about 20 billion pieces of the used diapers were dumped...
Contexts in source publication
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... technological development has transformed the traditional cloth diapers into modern cloth diapers. Modern cloth diapers can be divided into various types: pocket diapers ( Fig. 1 ai), AIO (all-in-one) diapers (Fig. 1a), and AI2 (all-in-two) diapers (Fig aiii) (Juliet Spurrier and Buck, 2015a). ...
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... and fastened with clips or safety pins when the diaper is worn. The advantages of cloth diapers are that they can be washed and reused. The technological development has transformed the traditional cloth diapers into modern cloth diapers. Modern cloth diapers can be divided into various types: pocket diapers ( Fig. 1 ai), AIO (all-in-one) diapers (Fig. 1a), and AI2 (all-in-two) diapers (Fig aiii) (Juliet Spurrier and Buck, ...
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... diapers have a two-part system with a shell (pocket) and an insert that is tucked inside the pocket. The diaper back sheet is designed to be waterproof with adjustable snap for fitting purpose (Fig. 1 ai). The AIO diaper is similar to disposable diapers. Most of the features are similar to pocket diapers except that the cover and insert of AIO diapers are sewn together (Fig.1aii). The AI2 diaper, which includes pre-fold, hybrid, and fitted, has a detachable insert that is either disposable or reusable with a waterproof reusable cover ( ...
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... AIO diaper is similar to disposable diapers. Most of the features are similar to pocket diapers except that the cover and insert of AIO diapers are sewn together (Fig.1aii). The AI2 diaper, which includes pre-fold, hybrid, and fitted, has a detachable insert that is either disposable or reusable with a waterproof reusable cover ( Fig.1 aiii). ...
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... of the features are similar to pocket diapers except that the cover and insert of AIO diapers are sewn together (Fig.1aii). The AI2 diaper, which includes pre-fold, hybrid, and fitted, has a detachable insert that is either disposable or reusable with a waterproof reusable cover ( Fig.1 aiii). The insert of an AI2 diaper is not tucked in like that of the pocket diaper but simply laid onto the cover and it takes less time to prepare the diaper. ...
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... following components: polyethylene back sheet, hydrophobic polypropylene non-woven fabric, hydrophilic non-woven fabric, distribution layer, hot melts, spandex elastics, hook-and-loop tape, super-absorbent polymeric core, cellulose, moisturizer lotions, fragrance lotions, and sometimes contain wetness indicators (Juliet Spurrier and Buck, 2014) (Fig. ...
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... biodegradable diaper produced by gDiaper consists of flushable and compostable (when in a wet condition) cotton inserts with soft reusable cotton covers (a combination of g-pants and g-liner) (Fig. 1c). The amount of waste generated by used biodegradable diapers that accumulate in landfills can be greatly reduced as they can be completely bio-degraded. The diaper manufacturer suggests that the faeces containing refills should be flushed rather than composted as there is up to 80% of bio-solid waste accumulated from wastewater and ...
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... disposable diapers should be recycled to minimize landfill waste. So far, diaper waste still represented the third largest constituent of municipal solid waste (Table 5) (Bavani, 2016). ...
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... technological development has transformed the traditional cloth diapers into modern cloth diapers. Modern cloth diapers can be divided into various types: pocket diapers ( Fig. 1 ai), AIO (all-in-one) diapers (Fig. 1a), and AI2 (all-in-two) diapers (Fig aiii) (Juliet Spurrier and Buck, 2015a). ...
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... and fastened with clips or safety pins when the diaper is worn. The advantages of cloth diapers are that they can be washed and reused. The technological development has transformed the traditional cloth diapers into modern cloth diapers. Modern cloth diapers can be divided into various types: pocket diapers ( Fig. 1 ai), AIO (all-in-one) diapers (Fig. 1a), and AI2 (all-in-two) diapers (Fig aiii) (Juliet Spurrier and Buck, ...
Context 11
... diapers have a two-part system with a shell (pocket) and an insert that is tucked inside the pocket. The diaper back sheet is designed to be waterproof with adjustable snap for fitting purpose (Fig. 1 ai). The AIO diaper is similar to disposable diapers. Most of the features are similar to pocket diapers except that the cover and insert of AIO diapers are sewn together (Fig.1aii). The AI2 diaper, which includes pre-fold, hybrid, and fitted, has a detachable insert that is either disposable or reusable with a waterproof reusable cover ( ...
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... AIO diaper is similar to disposable diapers. Most of the features are similar to pocket diapers except that the cover and insert of AIO diapers are sewn together (Fig.1aii). The AI2 diaper, which includes pre-fold, hybrid, and fitted, has a detachable insert that is either disposable or reusable with a waterproof reusable cover ( Fig.1 aiii). ...
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... of the features are similar to pocket diapers except that the cover and insert of AIO diapers are sewn together (Fig.1aii). The AI2 diaper, which includes pre-fold, hybrid, and fitted, has a detachable insert that is either disposable or reusable with a waterproof reusable cover ( Fig.1 aiii). The insert of an AI2 diaper is not tucked in like that of the pocket diaper but simply laid onto the cover and it takes less time to prepare the diaper. ...
Context 14
... following components: polyethylene back sheet, hydrophobic polypropylene non-woven fabric, hydrophilic non-woven fabric, distribution layer, hot melts, spandex elastics, hook-and-loop tape, super-absorbent polymeric core, cellulose, moisturizer lotions, fragrance lotions, and sometimes contain wetness indicators (Juliet Spurrier and Buck, 2014) (Fig. ...
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... biodegradable diaper produced by gDiaper consists of flushable and compostable (when in a wet condition) cotton inserts with soft reusable cotton covers (a combination of g-pants and g-liner) (Fig. 1c). The amount of waste generated by used biodegradable diapers that accumulate in landfills can be greatly reduced as they can be completely bio-degraded. The diaper manufacturer suggests that the faeces containing refills should be flushed rather than composted as there is up to 80% of bio-solid waste accumulated from wastewater and ...
Citations
... It identified factors that could enhance the system, reduce costs, and determine the most economically feasible and optimized collection model. Shing Chinh Khoo, Xue Yee Phang, Chiamin NG, Kar loke Lim, Su Shiung Lam, Ling ma [3] have conducted research about recent technologies for treatment and recycling of used disposable baby diaper. This review offers a comprehensive discussion of the challenges, strategies, and recent breakthroughs in addressing issues related to the generation and disposal of used diapers. ...
In landfills, there are approximately 3.5 million tonnes of disposable diapers, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Currently, used diapers are disposed of through burning, burying in the ground, or improper disposal on the ground, including illegal dumping by caregivers. These careless disposal practices pose the risk of spreading infectious diseases and contribute to environmental degradation. To address this significant problem, we propose a suitable nappy waste management system. The system consists of a container mounted on a metal pedestal, a shredder at the bottom, a solenoid valve for water supply, a salt distributor, and a control circuit as its primary components. The '1' key on the keyboard needs to be pressed as soon as a nappy is placed inside the container. The solenoid valve will then use a microcontroller to supply one diaper is worth of water at that moment. Like that, salt water supply is likewise managed. The keyboard's button '2' must be pressed if there are two diapers within the container. It is possible to get rid of five diapers at once because the solenoids' operation time grows in tandem. The shredder motor's working time is also adjusted by the microcontroller in accordance with the solenoid's operating time.
... In addition to pyrolysis, other cleaner technologies have been developed to increase the recyclability of used diapers and sanitary napkins. Khoo et al. (2019) highlighted the use of these cleaner technologies, such as shredding, agitating with a dehydrating agent, sterilizing, and separating them into plastic and fiber, which have useful applications in construction. ...
With ever-improving social and medical awareness about menstrual hygiene in India, the demand for sanitary napkins has increased significantly. The utilization of high-quality and environment-friendly raw materials to produce these pads is further supporting the growth of the market. However, with improving demand and usage, the need for proper disposal techniques becomes more relevant, since all of these pads get contaminated with human blood which makes them a biohazard and can cause significant damage to human health and the environment. One sanitary pad takes around 800 years to degrade naturally and the plastic and super absorbent polymers (SAPs) in sanitary pads are non-biodegradable and can take multiple decades to degrade. Waste management technologies such as pyrolysis, gasification, and resource recovery can be adopted to manage tons of sanitary waste. Currently, sanitary waste treatment mainly focuses on landfilling, incineration, and composting, where biohazard wastes are mixed with tons of solid waste. Disposable sanitary pads have a high carbon footprint of about 5.3 kg CO2 equivalent every year. Innovative solutions for sanitary pad disposal are discussed in the manuscript which includes repurposing of derived waste cellulose and plastic fraction into value-added products. Future aspects of disinfection strategies and value addition to waste cellulose recovered from napkins were systematically discussed to promote a circular economy.
Graphical abstract
... Disposable diaper has attracted great attention since its emergence in the 1960 s and its consumption has been drastically increasing in virtue of its cost effectiveness, user-friendly nature, skin compatibility, and mild storage conditions required [1,2]. Indeed, each infant (aged six months and below) would cost approximately seven diapers per day and the annual consumption of disposable diapers can be up to 170 billion (equivalent to 850 million metric tons), given that the number of newborns in 2023 reached 133 million. ...
The consumption of disposable diaper has increased drastically over the past decades in virtue of its cost effectiveness, user-friendly nature, and excellent skin compatibility. Nevertheless, used disposable diapers are typically fed to landfills with no treatment. This is a huge threat to the environment as superabsorbent polymer (SAP) in disposable diapers are essentially non-degradable under natural conditions. Unfortunately, recycling of SAP remains extremely challenging owing to its crosslinked network structure and ultra-high water absorption capacity. In this study, we propose a novel route for high-value utilization of SAP in used disposable diapers in a ‘waste treatment by waste’ manner. Specifically, the SAP was modified by polyethyleneimine (PEI) in a facile way (grafting and crosslinking under mild conditions) to develop the SAP-PEI, which is, to the best of our knowledge, the first modified-SAP-based adsorbent reported to date. The results demonstrated that the as-prepared SAP-PEI was superior to most low-cost adsorbents in terms of maximum adsorption capacity towards Cr(Ⅵ) (527.52 mg/g). Meanwhile, adsorption isotherms and kinetics revealed that Cr(Ⅵ) adsorption by the SAP-PEI can be effectively described by the pseudo-second-order model and the Langmuir model. Meanwhile, electrostatic attraction plays a key role in Cr(VI) adsorption by the SAP-PEI, and Cr(VI) are partially reduced to Cr(Ⅲ) in this process. Additionally, the SAP-PEI exhibited excellent reusability as its Cr(VI) removal efficiency decreased by less than 5 % after seven cycles. Overall, the SAP-PEI is a high-performance adsorbent and its application in removal of heavy metals such as Cr(VI) serves as a green and cost-effective approach for high-value utilization of SAP in used disposable diapers.
... Penggunaan zeolit dapat dicampurkan dengan tanah top soil atau di lubang tanam, dicampurkan dengan pupuk, SAP adalah bahan hidrogel yang mampu menyerap air dalam jumlah yang sangat banyak dalam waktu yang singkat dan menjaga air terikat di dalamnya (Abidin et al., 2018). Komposisi bahan hidrogel atau SAP dalam pempers mencakup butiran sodium polyacrylate (C3H3NaO2) yang berasal dari minyak bumi(Khoo et al., 2019). Sehingga, limbah SAP ini mampu menyerap air hingga mencapai antara 100 hingga 300 kali bobotnya(Sarifuddin et al., 2021). ...
Nikel terbentuk melalui pelapukan batuan ultrabasa atau ultramafik yang berasal dari kerak samudra yang teralihkan ke permukaan kerak benua. Proses pembentukan ini memakan waktu jutaan tahun, dimulai ketika batuan ultramafik tersingkap di permukaan bumi. Penambangan nikel memainkan peran penting dalam industri baterai kendaraan listrik dan perekonomian di Indonesia, namun dampaknya terhadap lingkungan sering menghasilkan lahan bekas tambang dengan karakteristik unik yang sulit direklamasi. Lahan bekas tambang sering memiliki rasio Mg/Ca yang lebih tinggi dari satu. Selain itu, tanah di lahan bekas tambang nikel biasanya dangkal dan bersifat hidrofobik, menyebabkan kesulitan dalam menyerap air. Reklamasi lahan bekas tambang menjadi fokus utama untuk mengembalikan meningkatkan daya serap tanah terhadap air dan produktivitas lahan. Dengan pendekatan perbaikan sifat fisika, kimia, dan biologi, teknologi reklamasi mencakup metode pembuatan lubang tanam berukuran 60x60x60 cm, pengomposan bahan organik, dan penggunaan Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) guna meningkatkan daya serap tanah terhadap air. Dalam konteks ini, teknologi reklamasi menjadi kunci untuk mempercepat keberhasilan reklamasi lahan bekas tambang nikel secara berkelanjutan dan mengoptimalkan pemanfaatan sumber daya tambang nikel di Indonesia.
... 2). The solid garbage is then put into the soil pile after the landfill has been covered with strong polyethylene to stop leachate percolation (Khoo, 2019). The waste is buried till it spreads the maximum depth. ...
... Diaper waste decomposes for 500 years or so (Meseldzija, et al., 2013). Incineration and pyrolysis are the two processes that the thermal approach could identify (Khoo, 2019). It is frequently regarded as quickest method to handle home waste, yet this approach befits the primary environmental issue (Nidoni, 2017). ...
... As you can see in the table, various microorganisms are utilised in the degrading process (e.g., Table 5). Although it takes money (Khoo, et al., 2019) and facility assistance, biodegradation is an alternative to reducing pollution that comprises plastic polymer that's become diaper materials (Kyaw, et al., 2012), (Mirza, et al., 2021), (Jadaun, et al., 2022), etc (Nowak, et al., 2011). ...
This paper objective is to disseminate knowledge about waste technology processing. An approach known as a review of the literature was used in the study. The influence and most recent innovation in resolving issues related to the production and disposal of dirty diapers are thoroughly discussed in this paper. Different technologies were emphasised, notably the safer and cleaner ones like composting and biodegradation to maximise recycling at a lower cost. Additionally, pyrolysis suggests a way to boost the effectiveness of the process of recycling soiled diapers. Finally, if the cost of a sequence of complex operations is less than the price of the finished product, recycling can be encouraged economically. The technology for recycling as a result becomes a key factor. Return on investment, overall costs, and environmental impact are things to consider while selecting a method. Recycling aims to reduce sewage treatment cost while producing final items of the highest calibre. Retrieval methods must have been created to be useful and eco-friendly in order to do this.
... It is observed that both working women and stay-at-home women use diapers for various reasons. Care-givers use diapers because of the advantages that they bring [43]. Most working women use diapers because they save time, as they reduce the time of doing laundry [17]. ...
Disposable diapers are designed to absorb and retain a baby’s urine and fecal matter whilst keeping their skin dry and healthy. Although they are convenient and a huge benefit in today’s busy life-style, their impact on the environment is becoming unbearable due to poor handling and disposal practices. Disposable diapers are known to reduce the burden of domestic chores for many care-givers. However, the threat to environmental and public health due to its ability to contaminate water and land cannot be ignored. These practices show a serious gap in Environmental Health Literacy (EHL) within the communities of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Seemingly, more than 95% of these communities use disposable diapers with limited knowledge on how to dispose of them and protect the environment. Apparently, there are no programs in place to transfer knowledge to care-givers on how to prevent an impact on the environment after use. On the other hand, there is no regulation or procedure in place focusing on practices and disposal. As a result, inappropriate handling and disposal continue to be a public health risk to communities, with less appropriate measures to prevent environmental and health risks.
... Textile waste includes wastewater, discarded textile goods, and landfill waste materials such as used diapers, clothing, etc. One of the reports suggested by Khoo et al. (2019) states that diapers being the third largest consumer product have contributed to 30% of non-biodegradable landfill waste. Around 3.5 million tonnes of used diapers end up in landfills annually and require more than 500 years to completely decompose. ...
Textile waste materials such as chemical-based diapers are responsible for aggravating environmental pollution. It usually takes years to degrade naturally. The world is in constant need of some green alternative solutions without compromising on product performance. Cellulosic materials being highly absorbent and biodegradable in nature such as cotton, Kapok, jute, banana etc. have the potential to replace these synthetic materials. The present study investigates the simulated urine absorption and retention characteristics of 100% cotton and Kapok-cotton blended webs. The morphological characteristics of raw, scoured and rewetted Kapok fiber were first studied. The hollow Kapok fiber lumen was found to have collapsed after scouring. However, it regained its shape after re-wetting in simulated urine. Absorption capacity was found to be maximum at 50:50 Kapok-cotton ratio in the nonwoven web. Statistically, the t-test also corroborates the same result at a 5% significance level. The absorption rate (g/s) and retention (%) were also maximum for the same blend. With an increase in external pressure, the liquid retention was reduced. On comparing a 50:50 Kapok-cotton blended with a 100% cotton nonwoven fibrous web, the absorption capacity, rate, and retention are increased by 26.1%, 300%, and 13.5%, respectively.
... Currently, there is no clear strategy of waste management of used diapers apart from landfills and incineration. The resource-consuming production and disposal of used diaper waste have led to many environmental issues and poses a threat to public health (Khoo et al., 2019). However, cleaner technologies such as thermal pyrolysis, recycling or composting of diapers require special attention and integration into the waste management. ...
The sustainable use of baby disposable diapers is one of the issues currently being discussed to reduce the undesirable impact on the environment and improve the public's understanding of the proper use of diapers. This issue is a step toward promoting a cleaner, greener, and waste-less environment. In this article, the authors discuss options for a viable future for both people and the planet. We believe that it inspire others in the field of sustainable use of diapers as well as future education in this area. In addition, we believe that it will be a motivation for a researchers working in industry to be focused on the production of new, biodegradable baby diapers as well as on recycling baby diapers waste (for example as composite material for a structural and architectural component of the building).
... The plastic components of a diaper seem to be the main focus of recycling programmes, or their incineration for energy recovery [10]. High manufacturing burdens should be the focus of recycling activities in order to overcome these challenges as well as provide environmental benefits [11]. Due to their high economic and feedstock value and their significant role in contributing to greenhouse gas emissions from diapers, SAPs provide a potential for reuse [7,12]. ...
... The combination of 20% CaCl 2 and 50% MgCl 2 (w/w) of SAP was determined to be the best salts to use in order to achieve a final SAP volume reduction of 92.7% at a reasonable cost. An appropriate COD: N ratio for further anaerobic digestion processing was obtained after the hydrolysate of used diapers was physicochemically characterised to determine its suitability as a substrate for anaerobic digestion [11,89]. ...
Super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) are three-dimensional network polymers that can absorb hundreds of times their own weight in distilled water and are either organic or inorganic. They are extensively employed in many different industries, including those that deal with agriculture, biomedicine, everyday physiological goods, separation technology, and wastewater treatment. Polysaccharides are increasingly being combined with synthetic monomers to create semi-synthetic, hybrid SAPs for specialized applications requiring finely tuned properties, such as wound dressings, fertilizers, or self-healing concrete, where the low solubility of synthetic polymers, purification issues, or the need for organic solvents are significant barriers to entry. Products made of polypropylene, polyethylene, elastics, cellulose, and superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) are among the billions that end up in landfills every year. The chapter discusses the development of superabsorbent polymers since 1961, along with the polymerisation procedures for these materials, their recycling, and their uses.KeywordsSuperabsorbent polymerRecycleReuseSynthesisClassification
... Meskipun memiliki banyak kelebihan, tetapi limbah yang dihasilkan popok sekali pakai dapat menjadi ancaman bahaya bagi lingkungan dan kesehatan. Material yang digunakan untuk popok sekali pakai berasal dari 70% bubur kayu dan 30% minyak bumi, yang merupakan sumber daya yang terbatas dan pembakarannya erat dengan meningkatnya perubahan iklim (Khoo et al., 2019;Rizki Amalia, Sekarwana, & Puspa W, 2022). Permasalahan limbah ini juga dialami di daerah Yogyakarta, dengan banyak sekali popok sekali pakai yang dibuang di sungai. ...
To anticipate environmental damage, one of the efforts is to use green products, including cloth diapers which are more environmentally friendly because they can be used repeatedly, thus reducing the waste of disposable diapers. For this reason, a study was conducted to determine the factors influencing the purchasing intention of environmentally friendly diapers. The factors studied included attitudes, subjective norms (SN), perceptions of behavioral control (PBC), environmental awareness (PL), moral responsibility (Norm), and perceived risk (PR). These six factors will be tested to determine whether they significantly influence the intention to use cloth diapers, then their effect will be analyzed. The objects in this study are residents of the City of Yogyakarta who have and take care of infants or toddlers. Data was obtained by distributing questionnaires. Data processing begins with validity and reliability testing. After testing the validity and reliability, it is followed by regression tests, model significance, significance test for the influence of each independent variable, and finally, determining the coefficient of determination. From the processing of the 406 questionnaires, it is known that three variables significantly influence: subjective norms, perceptions of behavioral control, and moral responsibility. The resulting regression equation is Intention=0.045attitude+0.288 SN+0.277PBC+0.009PL-0.020PR+0.316Norm. The coefficient of determination of the conceptual model is 64.2%, which means that changes in the values of the six variables studied contribute to a variation in the response variable (intention) of 64.2%.
