Figure 4 - uploaded by Legena Henry
Content may be subject to copyright.
![This plot of Caribbean countries’ GDP per capita places Trinidad and Tobago at the very top of the list [13].](profile/Legena-Henry/publication/275464354/figure/fig4/AS:294462011002882@1447216622196/This-plot-of-Caribbean-countries-GDP-per-capita-places-Trinidad-and-Tobago-at-the-very.png)
This plot of Caribbean countries’ GDP per capita places Trinidad and Tobago at the very top of the list [13].
Source publication
Caribbean residents outside of Trinidad and Tobago primarily utilize hydrocarbons for electricity, earning them the highest energy bills in the world. Apart from global climate change concerns, these high energy prices make it clear that alternative energy must be sourced for the Caribbean region. With Trinidad and Tobago׳s large offshore hydrocarb...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... majority of Caribbean nations outside of Trinidad and Tobago are less economically strong, as illustrated in Figure 4. Worse, their residents pay the highest electricity bills in the world [2][3][4][5] (see Figure 5). ...
Context 2
... each of these 64 frequencies, the spectrum data is presented in 90 separate angles, spaced at 4 o from each other, thereby covering all the possible angles of propagation of energy in the spectrum. Figure 14 shows the surface waves' ADCP-calculated Directional Spectrum at 12:30 pm, spanning 64 discrete frequency values over the entire detected spectrum, and ninety discrete angles, spanning all 360 o in directions. ...
Context 3
... directional spectrum of the waves was obtained from velocities measured by the upward-looking ADCP. The cartesian plots of the directional spectrum in Figure 14 and Figure 15 show narrow variations in directional spreading due to the low variability of the incoming waves. Note that this low variability is associated with high predictability of the wave field off the Las Cuevas Bay on the north coast of Trinidad, which is optimal for ocean-based renewable energy resources [67]. ...
Context 4
... note that the stronger directional spectrum is associated with minimal spreading in Figure 14, while the weaker spectral peak is associated with a more directionally spread-out spectrum as shown in Figure 15. Based on ADCP calculations of surface spectrum, the most energy generation is seen at 1230 hours (see Figure 14), when the least directional spreading is seen in the wavefield. ...
Context 5
... note that the stronger directional spectrum is associated with minimal spreading in Figure 14, while the weaker spectral peak is associated with a more directionally spread-out spectrum as shown in Figure 15. Based on ADCP calculations of surface spectrum, the most energy generation is seen at 1230 hours (see Figure 14), when the least directional spreading is seen in the wavefield. The estimated maximum energy detected via wave height in the surface at 12:30pm produces an average power of 11, 000 kWh/m, occurring at frequency near 0.2 Hz and at 39 o west of North, which is where much of the energy spread is observed to linger throughout the data set collected that day. ...
Context 6
... estimated maximum energy detected via wave height in the surface at 12:30pm produces an average power of 11, 000 kWh/m, occurring at frequency near 0.2 Hz and at 39 o west of North, which is where much of the energy spread is observed to linger throughout the data set collected that day. Similarly to Figure 14, Figure 15 shows that the least energy generation occurs at 1530 hours, when there is a high degree of directional spreading and broader frequency bandwidth in the wave field [65]. A close-up of Figure 14 is shown in Figure 16 and in Figure 17 (where it is shown how the energy spectrum can be seen as a function of wave frequency and as a function of energy travel direction). ...
Context 7
... to Figure 14, Figure 15 shows that the least energy generation occurs at 1530 hours, when there is a high degree of directional spreading and broader frequency bandwidth in the wave field [65]. A close-up of Figure 14 is shown in Figure 16 and in Figure 17 (where it is shown how the energy spectrum can be seen as a function of wave frequency and as a function of energy travel direction). At the lowest energy throughout the day, the estimated mean power per m here is 1000 kWh per m, and it is split between directions between 0 o and 30 o , and well spread out across frequencies within the 0.1 Hz to 0.25 Hz bandwidth. ...
Context 8
... residents outside of Trinidad and Tobago primarily utilize hydrocarbons for electricity, earning them the highest energy bills in the world. Apart from global climate change concerns, these high energy prices make it clear that alternative energy must be sourced for the Caribbean region. With Trinidad and Tobago’s large offshore hydrocarbon reserves, Trinidad and Tobago has bolstered its economy and its expertise in offshore engineering and technology in the past five decades. Caribbean regional efforts to find ocean- based renewable energy resources can largely exploit the aforementioned advantages and opportunities in Trinidad and Tobago. The present work involves a collaboration between a team of engineers to collect and analyze oceanic data in Trinidad and Tobago, and a team of sustainability scholars to survey the maritime context of Trinidad and Tobago via the lens of sustainable development. This is done to appropriately contextualize Trinidad and Tobago, which is the territory via which Caribbean Regional ocean-based power exploration is recommended. Keywords: Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean, energy, OTEC, offshore wind, ocean wave power To date, hydrocarbons dominate the Caribbean energy market [1, 2, 3, 4, 5], and very little has been published concerning the use of the abundant Caribbean Sea as a major energy source in the Caribbean region. Much of the published literature on ocean-based sources of renewable energy originate outside of the Caribbean, in regions such as the US, Asia, and Europe (see Figure 1). Despite their abundant access to sun, wind and the ocean throughout the year, Caribbean residents, primarily utilizing imported hydrocarbons, pay the highest energy bills in the world (see Figure 5). Within the region, the exception, Trinidad and Tobago, has bolstered its oil-based economy and its expertise in offshore engineering and technology in the past five decades [6–8]. Because of the high price of hydrocarbons, and the long-term environmental effects of hydrocarbons, alternative energy must be found for the Caribbean region. The data collection and other groundwork needed to start exploring the Caribbean’s ocean- based energy resources can largely exploit the aforementioned resources and opportunities in oil-rich Trinidad and Tobago. Towards this, the present work is a collaborative, multi- disciplinary analysis of the potential for exploring ocean-based alternative energy sources in the Caribbean Sea. This work comprises of two components: (1) data collection from the physical oceanic environment in Trinidad and Tobago, as well as (2) a contextual examination of ocean-based enterprizes in Trinidad and Tobago. The physical investigation involves engineers and technicians deploying an upward-facing Acoustic Doppler Current Profile meter to measure ocean waves in Las Cuevas Bay, Trinidad and Tobago (see Figure 2). Physically, a consistently gentle ocean surface is observed at Las Cuevas Bay in seven hours of high-frequency data, showing wave heights up to 1.8 m. This, in the Caribbean socio-economic context, has implications on the type of ocean-based energy resources that can be generated at Las Cuevas Bay and other comparable oceanic locations throughout the Caribbean region. The contextual examination of the Caribbean region towards oceanic energy sources consists of a series of local field trips and interviews, coupled with a literature review. Trinidad and Tobago is an archipelagic republic in the southern Caribbean, consisting of 33 islands in total. As shown in the data in Figure 3, Trinidad and Tobago is the number one offshore supplier of Liquified Natural Gas imports to the United States [9], and is thereupon economically strong. Much of Trinidad and Tobago’s oil and gas reserves are offshore. As a by-product of this, Trinidad and Tobago is consequently inundated with the newest offshore exploration devices and technologies. Research vessels, Teledyne ADCP’s, Nortek AWAC’s and other useful wave measurement devices are on the ground and available for use. Offshore divers and technicians who can design surveys, and deploy and retrieve instruments are readily available. Underwater umbilical cables are already widely implemented, primarily to take electric power from Trinidad or Tobago to the nation’s smaller islands. The majority of Caribbean nations outside of Trinidad and Tobago are less economically strong, as illustrated in Figure 4. Worse, their residents pay the highest electricity bills in the world [2, 3, 4, 5] (see Figure 5). The way forward for many of these nations is to move away from oil and gas-powered electricity and to move towards alternative energy in their local resources, such as the ocean. We consider the importance of the ocean in solving this Caribbean economic problem, because all Caribbean territories consist several (up to 1000) times more oceanic territory than dry land (see Figure 6). Looking at these countries in a global context (as shown in Figure 6), ocean-based resources are comparably plentiful for the Caribbean region ...
Citations
... The country recognises offshore oil and gas as a major constituent of its blue economy. This is despite the industry's huge environmental impact [40] although, somewhat ironically, Henry et al. [41] do see the country's long history in offshore energy development as a potential key competitive advantage in offshore renewable energy development in the Caribbean. ...
The blue economy as a development paradigm has gained traction and favour in small island developing States (SIDS) including those of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). The member States of CARICOM lie in close proximity to each other, exhibit high dependency on a shared space and resources and seek to establish a mutually beneficial interaction through an already institutionalized regional integration movement. Within CARICOM however, there is the problematic existence of different understandings of what the blue economy represents. This is illustrated through the use of case studies of three CARICOM countries, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize and Grenada. Competing interpretations of the blue economy complicate global engagement and lead to a re-emergence of issues which the Caribbean Community have never fully confronted and resolved. It is found that CARICOM needs to facilitate discussion, understanding and compromise among its members to arrive at an agreed policy and strategy that would effectively co-ordinate and operationalize blue economy development in the region. Such an understanding would enable CARICOM to optimise the collective economic, social and environmental benefits of the blue economy and allow the regional grouping to be an influential actor in all aspects of blue economy discourse on the global stage.
... The Caribbean Small Island States are currently burdened with the highest energy prices in the world which fluctuate greatly with the global price of petroleum [11]. With increasing demands for energy and concern for the environment with regards to harmful emissions of gases released from the burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity, alternative means of harnessing energy must be sought to feed the Caribbean power demands and safeguard the environment. ...
... Unlike most successful designs on the market, the Sea Force Energy (SFE) WEC is being designed specifically for smaller wave heights, less than 2m, which are all considered idle or useless for the Pelamis and comparable designs. Figure 20 in [11] shows that the Pelamis device, like most other successful wave energy converters, operates optimally in waves of heights of 5m to 8m with periods of 6.5 seconds up to 12.0 seconds, considering the waves primarily characteristic of the Caribbean sea (less than 1m wave height) to be "idle" and therefore useless. ...
... where the angular frequency of the wave, ω = 2π T = 2π rad 8 s = 0.785 rad/s, and the wavenumber of the wave, k = 2π λ = 2 π rad 100 m = 0.063m −1 and the bottom depth, h=7m. Note that we can estimate that wave period, T ≈ 8 s, and wavelength, λ ≈100 m, from previous knowledge of the local wave characteristics [11]. ...
Existing commercialized wave energy converters like the Pelamis device target waves with a mean wave height of approximately 6m. Near-Equator territories (such as the Caribbean, Malaysia, and Egypt) usually boast maximum wave heights of 1.2 m with an average wave height of 0.75 m. Existing wave energy converter designs therefore cannot benefit such territories. Our goal is to optimize wave energy conversion specifically to extract the energy from waves characteristic of Near-Equator latitudes, such as 8-second ocean waves of average height 0.75m endemic to the Caribbean waters.
While many tools and methodologies for assessing social impact exist and are used in the social science and global development fields, there is a lack of standard methods for considering the broader social impact of products in the engineering community. Some reasons these methods are not as widely used in the engineering community include designers not being aware of the methods, or methods not being widely applicable. The purpose of this research is to help designers and researchers find relevant design tools and methods for implementing social impact considerations. This is done through the classification of 374 papers in the Engineering for Global Development (EGD) literature along several dimensions including method purpose, industry sector, social impacts considered, sustainable development goals, paper setting, and data inputs required. This paper describes how designers and researchers can use this set of classified papers to locate relevant design tools and methods to improve social impact considerations in their work.
The high dependence on imported fuels and the potential for both climate change mitigation and economic diversification make Barbados' energy system particularly interesting for detailed transformation analysis. An open source energy system model is presented here for the analysis of a future Barbadian energy system. The model was applied in a scenario analysis, using a greenfield approach, to investigate cost-optimal and 100% renewable energy system configurations. Within the scenarios, the electrification of private passenger vehicles and cruise ships through shore-to-ship power supply was modelled to assess its impact on the energy system and the necessary investment in storage. Results show that for most scenarios of a system in 2030, a renewable energy share of over 80% is achieved in cost-optimal cases, even with a growing demand. The system's levelised costs of electricity range from 0.17 to 0.36 BBD/kWh in the cost-optimal scenarios and increase only moderately for 100% renewable systems. Under the reasonable assumption of decreasing photovoltaic investment costs, system costs of a 100% system may be lower than the current costs. The results show that pumped hydro-storage is a no-regret option for the Barbadian power system design. Overall, the results highlight the great potential of renewable energy as well as the technical and economic feasibility of a 100% renewable energy system for Barbados.
