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We present an overview of a new monolithic fabrication technology known as three-dimensional integration. D integration refers to any process by which multiple conventional device layers may be stacked and electrically interconnected. By combining state-of-the-art single-wafer integration with a high-density inter-wafer interconnect, our D integrat...
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... These three steps ultimately result in reducing the number of overlaps iteratively, eventually producing a placement of logic blocks with legitimate possibility of the least overlaps. Several research efforts [31][32][33] have been made to improve the partitioning-based algorithms with the main aim to merge highly connected instances in the same cluster, thereby minimizing total interconnect length and maximizing the cut between two adjacent layers. For example, in [34], a partitioningbased algorithm is proposed that results in a decrease in power consumption, area and delay when compared with SA-based placement algorithm. ...
Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is at the core of System on Chip (SoC) design across various Industry 5.0 digital systems—healthcare devices, farming equipment, autonomous vehicles and aerospace gear to name a few. Given that pre-silicon verification using Computer Aided Design (CAD) accounts for about 70% of the time and money spent on the design of modern digital systems, this paper summarizes the machine learning (ML)-oriented efforts in different FPGA CAD design steps. With the recent breakthrough of machine learning, FPGA CAD tasks—high-level synthesis (HLS), logic synthesis, placement and routing—are seeing a renewed interest in their respective decision-making steps. We focus on machine learning-based CAD tasks to suggest some pertinent research areas requiring more focus in CAD design. The development of open-source benchmarks optimized for an end-to-end machine learning experience, intra-FPGA optimization, domain-specific accelerators, lack of explainability and federated learning are the issues reviewed to identify important research spots requiring significant focus. The potential of the new cloud-based architectures to understand the application of the right ML algorithms in FPGA CAD decision-making steps is discussed, together with visualizing the scenario of incorporating more intelligence in the cloud platform, with the help of relatively newer technologies such as CAD as Adaptive OpenPlatform Service (CAOS). Altogether, this research explores several research opportunities linked with modern FPGA CAD flow design, which will serve as a single point of reference for modern FPGA CAD flow design.
... Recently, the shrinking of transistors has met physical limitations, because extremely small transistors cause current leakage and damage electronic devices. Therefore, 3D integration has become a promising way to implement Moore's law, as it has several advantages, such as high interconnection density, high performance, and small form factor [1,2]. There are two bonding methods in 3D IC: dielectric and metal bonding, and metal bonding plays a more important role because it determines the transmission signal and power. ...
Cu-to-Cu direct bonding plays an important role in three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D IC). However, the bonding process always requires high temperature, high pressure, and a high degree of consistency in height. In this study, Sn is passivated over electroplated copper. Because Sn is a soft material and has a low melting point, a successful bond can be achieved under low temperature and low pressure (1 MPa) without any planarization process. In this experiment, Sn thickness, bonding temperature, and bonding pressure are variables. Three values of thicknesses of Sn, i.e., 1 μm, 800 nm, and 600 nm were used to calculate the minimum value of Sn thickness required to compensate for the height difference. Additionally, the bonding process was conducted at two temperatures, 220 °C and 250 °C, and their optimized parameters with required pressure were found. Moreover, the optimized parameters after the Cu planarization were also investigated, and it was observed that the bonding can succeed under severe conditions as well. Finally, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to observe the adhesion property between different metals and intermetallic compounds (IMCs).
... The evaluation aims to compare the design to the requirements described during the problem description process. Even, if we are unable to evaluate a design solution before producing the "correct" design since we are unable to differentiate between good and poor designs [16,[50][51][52]. If the design varies in the specification section, the selection must be rendered accordingly in the synthesis section, and new values for design variables must be obtained to boost the result (backward arrow in Fig. 2), and the final step is the presentation. ...
In recent years, computer-based graphic knowledge has evolved and become the most common trend. The computer-aided design would be used by the designers to generate design concepts and draft documents (CAD). Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer-based software tools to assist engineers in the production of goods. The designers would use computer-aided design (CAD) to create a product. The concept would then be converted into hardware using computer-aided manufacturing on the same computer (CAM). These two technologies are merged into unified CAD/CAM systems, in which a specification is created in a CAD system and the production process is managed in a single system from start to finish in CAM. CAD/CAM systems are often used in computer-aided design, which is the use of a computer to create, modify, and analyze a design. This article aims to provide an overview of the computer-aided design and manufacturing processes in various sectors.
... Multiple device layers are layered together on the 3D Chip, with vertical linkages tunneling between them. The advantages of switching from standard 2D to 3D networks are listed here [15], [17], [18]: 1) 3D design reduces the number of global interconnects leading to increasing the system performance. 2) 3D design provides a higher packing density and a smaller footprint due to the additional third dimension compared to the 2D networks. ...
... Then the function will route the message in x and y directions by calculating the values of x and y from Equation (14) and Equation (15) respectively. Based on the results, the short path between the two nodes will be measured by using the Equations (16), (17), and (18) and then the message will be routed to its destination through this path. During the routing process in the 3D-NoC network, if the function finds that the destination node is outside its range, the message will be forwarded to the proper gateway to a higher or a lower level based on the shortest path. ...
In recent years, there has been a significant shift toward the adoption of the “Internet of Things (IoT)” era, in which vast amounts of data are collected and processed, and Artificial intelligence (AI) is used to make critical choices. When acting in real-time, it is vital to use devices with a lot of computing power. MPC (Massively Parallel Computer) Two-dimensional (2D) design systems are the most powerful computers available. Unfortunately, they can’t meet the need for the advanced computing operation required by many applications. As a result, it is critical to invest in developing high operational capacity systems that will meet the current computational power consumption demands. This paper developed the architecture of the two-dimensional Shifted Completely Connected Network (2D-SCCN) and proposed a three-dimensional (3D) network to achieve greater capacity and performance. The shortest path protocol on three-dimensional Shifted Completely Connected Network (3D- SCCN) was established, tested by computer simulator, and compared based on “shortest diameter”, “shortest average distance”, “lowest cost”, “moderate bisection width”, and “high arc-connectivity” among other characteristics. As a result, “3D-SCCN” was the most efficient method of transmitting a message between two nodes, increasing the system’s real-time response capability.
... Among nitrides, zirconium nitride [1,4], and titanium nitride [1] have a relatively high thermal stability, high hardness, low electrical resistance, superconductivity properties at ultra-cold temperatures, and high corrosion resistance. These properties make the use of zirconium nitride to be valuable in anti-corrosion coatings [5], plating coated surfaces [6], creating goldplated coatings [7], Josephson junction [8], thermal probes [9], base metal transistors [10], cryogenic thermometers [11], diffusion barriers [12] and 3D circuits [13]. Zirconium nitride thin films can be prepared by a variety of techniques such as chemical vapor deposition [14], reactive sputtering [15], and pulsed laser deposition [16]. ...
Zirconium nitride films were deposited by RF reactive magnetron sputtering at room temperature in an N2 and Ar ambient. The X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that the growth of ZrN with preferred orientations (111) and (200) on the soda-lame glass substrates was reached. The particle size formed on the surface of the synthesized layers increases from 15.9 to 42.1 nm as deposition time increases. The N/Zr ratio decreases from 2.0 to 1.43 with increasing deposition time from 10 to 30, and the average surface roughness increased from 0.88 to 5.58 nm. Increasing the deposition time reduced the bandgap from 2.91 to 2.06 eV and also increased the resistance from 19.84 × 10–6 to 40.69 × 10⁻⁶Ω cm. The thermal coefficient of resistance was 9.27 × 10–8Ω·cm∘K\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\frac{{\Omega \cdot {\text{cm}}}}{{^{ \circ } K}}$$\end{document} for the thickest sample and 5.26 × 10–8Ω·cm∘K\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\frac{{\Omega \cdot {\text{cm}}}}{{^{ \circ } K}}$$\end{document} for the thinnest sample. At a wavelength of 600 nm, the refractive index was 2.028 and 0.889 for the samples deposited for 10 and 30 min, respectively.
... Protecting designs from both intellectual property (IP) theft and design tampering has become an important goal as B Ryan Rakvic rakvic@usna.edu 1 Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA 2 United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD, USA a result of the threat of compromise resulting from the increasing trend of manufacturing integrated circuits offshore [21,23]. Although reconfigurable solutions help mitigate the problem, many applications still call for dedicated application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) solutions for performance or cost reasons, and reconfigurable devices have their own problems in this context, which are beyond the scope of this paper. ...
... Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) is an exciting new field that has recently been used in industry and studied in academia. There are various ways in which 3D technology is currently employed [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. A key issue 3D technology addresses is how to get the information from one die to the next. ...
Although 3D integrated circuit technology has typically been used to solve specific design goals, it has great potential for protecting intellectual property from theft or unwanted modification while at a third-party fabrication facility. We present analysis of a technique for splitting a design across multiple die layers for this purpose. From the perspective of a third-party, this technique effectively encrypts the circuit, preventing unauthorized use of, or alteration to, the design. The device is “unencrypted” at a secure final assembly location where it is oriented and bonded according to its secret key. As is true for any cryptographic technique, analysis of the algorithm or implementation may result in attacks with lower combinatorial complexity. We look at some of these potential attacks and discuss a number of possible solutions. Finally, we introduce the inter-die routing layer, which effectively complements the 3D splitting technique, making it much more difficult to develop attacks to bypass a brute force approach.
... This degradation occurs due to the increase in network diameter, which in turn has a significant impact on deciding system performance [2]. As a result, three-dimensional (3D) chip architecture is envisioned to be a viable solution for the issues arising from further increases in transistor density and system performance [3], [4]. Through the use of 3D diestacking technology, it is feasible to partition a single large die into several smaller segments and then stack these in a 3D fashion [5]. ...
Given the increase in cache capacity over the past few decades, cache access efficiency has come to play a critical role in determining system performance. To ensure efficient utilization of the cache resources, non-uniform cache architecture (NUCA) has been proposed to allow for a large capacity and a short access latency. With the support of Networks-on-Chip (NoC), NUCA is often employed to organize the last level cache (LLC). However, this method also hurts cache access fairness, which denotes the degree of non-uniformity for cache access latencies. This drop in fairness can result in an increased number of cache accesses with overhigh latency, which lead to a bottleneck in system performance. This paper investigates the cache access fairness in the context of NoC-based three-dimensional (3D) chip architecture, and provides new insights into 3D architecture design. We propose fair-NUCA (F-NUCA), a co-design scheme intended to optimize cache access fairness. In F-NUCA, we strive to improve fairness by equalizing cache access latencies. To achieve this goal, the memory mapping and channel width are both redistributed non-uniformly, thereby equalizing the non-contention and contention latencies respectively. The experimental results reveal F-NUCA can effectively improve cache access fairness. When F-NUCA is compared with the traditional static NUCA (S-NUCA) in a simulation with PARSEC benchmarks, the average reductions in average latency and latency standard deviation are 4.64%/9.38% for a 4×4×2 mesh network, as well as 6.31%/13.51% for a 4×4×4 mesh network. In addition, a 4.0%/6.4% improvement in system throughput can be achieved for the two scales of mesh networks respectively.
... First, TSV pads consume considerably larger bonding area in each layer compared to horizontal wires [7] [8]. Second, TSV technology does not scale with feature size [9]. Therefore, transistor and wire shrinkage make the above problems even more severe. ...
2D-NoCs have been the mainstream approach used to interconnect multi-core systems. 3D-NoCs have emerged to compensate for deficiencies of 2D-NoCs such as long latency and power overhead. A low-latency routing algorithm for 3D-NoC is designed to accommodate high-speed communication between cores. Both simulation and analytical models are applied to estimate the communication latency of NoCs. Generally, simulations are time-consuming and slow down the design process. Analytical models provide, within a fraction of the time, nearly accurate results which can be used by simulation to fine-tune the design. In this paper, a high performance and adaptive routing algorithm has been proposed for partially connected 3D-NoCs. Latency of the routing algorithm under different traffic patterns, different number of elevators and different elevator assignment mechanisms are reported. An analytical model, tailored to the adaptivity of the algorithm and under low traffic scenarios, has been developed and the results have been verified by simulation. According to the results, simulation and analytical results are consistent within a 10 percent margin.
... In a 3D die-stacking technology, multiple device layers are connected via vertical interconnects tunnelling [71] through them. Different type of vertical interconnect technologies have been evolved, viz. ...
Four primary aspects of chip design are processor, memory, IO, and communication. Communication amalgamated over a SoC (system-on-chip) is the basis of origin of an NoC (network-on-chip). Continuous increase in processing/communication needs with the rapid growth in VLSI industry providing higher and higher integration density within a single die has boosted the step towards this new paradigm shift by the researchers. Advent of three-dimensional (3D) integrated circuits (ICs) design technologies has given this direction another positive thrust. Researchers are indeed very hopeful with the amalgamation of these two different technologies and thereby in developing new methodologies for designing 3D NoCs to cater the need of high-performance nanoscale computing and communication systems tomorrow. This chapter describes different design challenges, available technologies, design and performance issues and parametric measurement of such nanoscale systems, emerging cutting-edge technologies, and possible future directions in designing 3D NoC-based nanosystems.
... Micromachines 2016, 7, 78 2 of 12 such as monolithic integration and die and wafer stacking [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12], which have advanced significantly in the industry with noted challenges associated with precise alignment of devices and throughput [13]. It should be noted that wafer stacking is a serial process and, as a consequence, the extent of three-dimensionality that could be achieved is limited; hence, wafer stacking actually achieves a 2.5D architecture, and not a truly 3D architecture. ...
The assembly of integrated circuits in three dimensions (3D) provides a possible solution to address the ever-increasing demands of modern day electronic devices. It has been suggested that by using the third dimension, devices with high density, defect tolerance, short interconnects and small overall form factors could be created. However, apart from pseudo 3D architecture, such as monolithic integration, die, or wafer stacking, the creation of paradigms to integrate electronic low-complexity cellular building blocks in architecture that has tile space in all three dimensions has remained elusive. Here, we present software and hardware foundations for a truly 3D cellular computational devices that could be realized in practice. The computing architecture relies on the scalable, self-configurable and defect-tolerant cell matrix. The hardware is based on a scalable and manufacturable approach for 3D assembly using folded polyhedral electronic blocks (E-blocks). We created monomers, dimers and 2 × 2 × 2 assemblies of polyhedral E-blocks and verified the computational capabilities by implementing simple logic functions. We further show that 63.2% more compact 3D circuits can be obtained with our design automation tools compared to a 2D architecture. Our results provide a proof-of-concept for a scalable and manufacture-ready process for constructing massive-scale 3D computational devices.
