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The whole tree and its elements. A: whole tree, B: distinction of the above- and below- ground part, C: partitioning of above-ground part into stem, branches and foliage, D: further partitioning of the stem into stump, bole (wood and bark), and stem top, and branches into large and small branches.
Source publication
Lawrence, M. 2009. Common tree definitions for national forest inventories in Europe. Silva Fennica 43(2): 303–321. At the international level, various definitions have been established for the compilation and publication of forest resources assessment results over the last decade. These international definitions frequently rely on terms that are n...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... part of the stump are not necessar- ily included in national growing stock estimates ( Table 1). These tree parts are defined differently at the national level and clarification is required when harmonising volume and biomass estimations. Different parts of a tree are mentioned in the definitions or glossaries of FAO (1998), UNECE/ FAO (2000), FAO (2004) and IPCC (2003) (Table 2), but a definition is only available for stumps and roots in UNECE/FAO (2000). A systematic terminology and definitions for the different parts of a tree for NFI purposes and common reporting are missing. To establish a clear specification for each tree part, a hierarchical partitioning approach has been chosen, in which the whole tree is step- wise divided into disjoint parts or elements. The objective of this general and flexible approach is to lay the basis for a broad range of additive and comparable volume or biomass estimates, which include or exclude well-defined elements of trees depending on the respective information needs. The proposed partition of the whole tree into elements and the established terminology covers the basic needs for current reporting requirements within the framework of FRA, MCPFE and IPCC. But it also allows further division into smaller elements if needed in the future. The partitioning approach involves five steps, or levels of differentiation (Fig. 1). At each level, any part of the tree belongs only to one element. Start- ing from the whole tree (level I), we distinguish between above-ground part and below-ground part (level II). At level III the above-ground part is divided into stem, lateral parts and foliage. At level IV the stem is subdivided into stem top, bole and stump, and the lateral parts are partitioned into large and small branches. In the last step (level V) the bole is partitioned into wood and bark. The distinction of wood and bark may also be relevant for stump, stem top, large and small branches, and the below-ground part as indicated in Fig. 1. Corresponding to Fig. 1 the individual tree elements at the currently highest level of differentiation are illustrated in Fig. 2. The partitioning approach refers to woody perennials that are classified as tree according to the general tree definition presented in section 3.1. In the following an individual tree – as starting point of the partition into its elements – is defined as the sum of its distinct and disjoint elements: The whole tree also contains the fine roots, although they are considered as part of soil organic matter or litter in some definitions on the basis of measurement practicability (FAO 2004, IPCC ...
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Citations
... Some countries specify felling height more precisely, e.g., 1 % of the tree height. In practice, stump heights mostly range between 10 and 30 cm (Gschwantner et al., 2009). ...
... The biomass statistics of 26 countries (see country list in the Methods section), representing 92% of the forest area of Europe 22 , were obtained by harmonising the national data in terms of the biomass definition and temporal resolution (Fig. 1a). Specifically, the NFI biomass data were first of all adjusted at tree level with ad-hoc correction and expansion factors to include the same components of the trees, namely all aboveground parts from stump to top (included), with dead and living branches and foliage [26][27][28][29] . The harmonised statistics were then updated to the year 2020 using the CBM, a modelling approach that simulates the biomass changes due to forest growth, mortality, harvest and natural disturbances 21 . ...
Forest biomass is an essential resource in relation to the green transition and its assessment is key for the sustainable management of forest resources. Here, we present a forest biomass dataset for Europe based on the best available inventory and satellite data, with a higher level of harmonisation and spatial resolution than other existing data. This database provides statistics and maps of the forest area, biomass stock and their share available for wood supply in the year 2020, and statistics on gross and net volume increment in 2010–2020, for 38 European countries. The statistics of most countries are available at a sub-national scale and are derived from National Forest Inventory data, harmonised using common reference definitions and estimation methodology, and updated to a common year using a modelling approach. For those counties without harmonised statistics, data were derived from the State of Europe’s Forest 2020 Report at the national scale. The maps are coherent with the statistics and depict the spatial distribution of the forest variables at 100 m resolution.
... Branch-and stem top volumes are particularly high for deciduous trees, because their stems are only moderately long, resulting in a crown wood proportion of 20-50% of the total above-ground wood volume, depending on tree species, size class and location [15,18]. Branch wood can be defined as assortments of secondary growth order, which develop laterally from the main stem [19]. Contrary to today, branch wood was used in historical times in the construction of buildings, ships and tools [20]. ...
Although hardwood building materials are mainly produced from the tree stem, the branches of deciduous trees make up a significant proportion (20-50%) of their above-ground biomass. Regrettably, the mechanical properties of branches are largely unknown and they are mainly used as fuel, overlooking their potential as valuable construction materials. Therefore, we conducted quasi-static tests on branch and stem wood from beech, oak, and poplar trees, evaluating wood density, tensile, compression and bending strength, and elastic properties. The mechanical properties were correlated with precise positional data from 3D point clouds of the sample trees. Our findings revealed significant differences between branch and stem wood, most notably in density and tensile strength. The linear regression models revealed that bending strength depends primarily on density and branch slope, and secondarily on branch top side and diameter. Applying laser scanning technology can help to better understand the variability and predict the performance of branch wood, enabling more resource-and carbon-efficient processing into building materials.
... The distinction between trees and shrubs is mainly based on plant height and this is a possible source of many ambiguities. Indeed, despite the uniform frame for the definition of trees and shrubs provided in Europe [68], there is still an ambiguous boundary between these two concepts The morphology of a species depends on stational parameters, such as latitude, altitude, exposure, soil condition [68], temperature, humidity, rainfall, etc. The height is overall a constant parameter for making distinctions between trees and shrubs. ...
... The distinction between trees and shrubs is mainly based on plant height and this is a possible source of many ambiguities. Indeed, despite the uniform frame for the definition of trees and shrubs provided in Europe [68], there is still an ambiguous boundary between these two concepts The morphology of a species depends on stational parameters, such as latitude, altitude, exposure, soil condition [68], temperature, humidity, rainfall, etc. The height is overall a constant parameter for making distinctions between trees and shrubs. ...
Background
Several hypotheses have been used in ethnobotany to explain the plant’s selection criteria by people for their daily needs. Thus, it is important to assess synergy and complementarity among them, especially, those concerning the plant use value, social dynamics and human traits. The study aims to (i) highlight people’s socio-economic factors, and plant ecological traits that affect the plant use-availability dynamic (PUD); and (ii) assess the available species diversity effect on ethno-medicinal knowledge diversity in Benin.
Methods
Ethnobotanical interviews were carried out to quantify the importance of local species in different ecological zones of Benin with 590 traditional medicine actors. Vegetation surveys were done to assess species availability within 337 plots of 50 m x 40 m or 60 m x 30 m, depending on the climatic zone, for a total of 61.6 ha, established in 15 forests distributed within the 10 phytodistricts of Benin. The plant use availability hypothesis was quantified as a dynamic link between species use value and availability (PUD). A general and mixed linear models were used to assess the significance of each factor’s effect on PUD. Pearson correlation test was applied on Shannon diversity index considering inventoried species in the field and those which were cited by people, for the available species diversity effect on ethno-medicinal knowledge diversity assessment.
Results
A hundred and twenty woody medicinal plants, mostly trees (68.33%), were sampled. Growth form and its interaction with phytodistrict have a significant effect (p: 0.005) on PUD. The less available trees were the most used in the phytodistricts 3, 4, 8 and 10. PUD varies significantly according to social factors (p: 0.007). Ethnicity, age and main activity were the most quoted social factors which influenced the PUD. Ethnicity and age have various effects considering the phytodistricts. Moreover, the influence of age changes following the main activity. Plant selection did not solely link to the surrounding diversity (r: − 0.293; p: 0.403). Within some phytodistricts, especially those of 3, 4, 8 and 10, the less available tree species were the most requested.
Conclusion
It is urgent to reforest vegetation patches in some phytodistricts (3, 4, 8 and 10) of Benin with widely requested and no available species to avoid the extinction of their wild populations. This concerns Cassia sieberiana DC., Anonychium africanum (Guill. & Perr.) C. E.Hughes & G. P. Lewis, Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir., Cola millenii K. Schum., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss., Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms, Treculia africana Decne. ex Trécul, Uapaca heudelotii Baill., Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn., Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. and Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau.
... We verified the individuals in the field that were clearly visible in the 1992 image (old, mean DBH = 32.2 cm) and selected two with one single stem (hereafter single), and two with multiple stems (i.e., multi-stemmed according to Gschwantner et al. [35]) (hereafter multi). We chose to compare these different tree structures because of their expected influence on herbaceous vegetation cover and herbivores passage and, in turn, on SOC. ...
... clearly visible in the 1992 image (old, mean DBH = 32.2 cm) and selected two with one single stem (hereafter single), and two with multiple stems (i.e., multi-stemmed according to Gschwantner et al. [35]) (hereafter multi). We chose to compare these different tree structures because of their expected influence on herbaceous vegetation cover and herbivores passage and, in turn, on SOC. ...
A large portion of the Mediterranean basin suffers from a lack of organic carbon in the soil and low woody cover percentages, resulting in a very high risk of desertification. In such conditions, knowing the effects on below and above ground carbon sequestration of pioneer woody species is of great importance, although barely assessed at the individual level. In this study, we first investigated whether almond-leaved pear (Pyrus spinosa) individuals influence soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration and stock in comparison with surrounding pasturelands inside a natural reserve in Sicily, Italy. Second, we evaluated inter individual variability on such storage, testing the effects of plant height, basal diameter, canopy cover and tree structure (single or multiple stems). Soils under pear presented, on average, a significantly higher SOC than pasturelands (3.86% and 3.16%, respectively) as well as a lower bulk density (1.09 and 1.28 g cm−3, respectively). Due to a lower soil compaction, SOC stocks (130.3 and 113.9 Mg ha−1, respectively) did not differ significantly. Below and aboveground biomass carbon accounted for a small fraction of carbon stock, while neither pear structure, age nor tree structure significantly influenced SOC concentration and SOC stock. Despite the need of further investigations, our results indicate that pear may represent an excellent tree species to improve carbon storage, both while triggering the restoration of Mediterranean woodlands or increasing biodiversity in pasturelands and agroforestry systems, that, indeed, can hold high SOC if well managed.
... Despite emerging new technologies such as remote sensing, empirical allometric models remain central when predicting forest biomass [40,41]. Diameter at breast height (D, at 1.3 m above ground) is a basic forest inventory variable [42] but for improved models using both D and H to produce tree volume or biomass is a common forestry practice [43]. However, inclusion of H in the model would be of no use if D and H were perfectly correlated. ...
Bio energy obtained through forest biomass is a promising renewable energy option that provides a more environmentally sustainable alternative to fossil resources by reducing the net flux of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. India, a developing nation is also in the process of building forest biomass models to study the potential of forests in short and long-term carbon mitigation. Earlier, traditional and destructive sampling were the popular methods for the aforesaid purpose. Recently, non-destructive methods have been adopted applying different allometric equations mostly developed outside India. Thus, there was a need to develop non-destructive allometric aboveground (AGB) models complementing the Indian climate. Also, there was a scarcity of domestic/local AGB models for arid, semi-arid, northern tropical thorn forest of India. The objectives of this study were to develop site-specific and mixed-species allometric models to predict AGB, at the Northern Delhi Ridge Forest (NDRF) using nonlinear mathematical functions. The model has a wide scope and can be applied to adjoining areas as well having similar climatic conditions. Three allometric combinations were tried to fit the aboveground biomass data obtained from the ridge forest. A three-parametric Richard's model (with predictor variable x=D 2 H) was best 230 fitted to AGB (R 2 adj= 0.9463) values for larger trees. Meanwhile, for juvenile plants, a three-parametric Richard function was best fitted (R 2 adj= 0.9733) when (x = DH) was used as a predictor variable. Cross-validation of model parameters exhibited statistical stability.
... To assess tree crown volume, defined as 'the upper part of a tree carrying the living branches and their foliage' (Gschwantner et al., 2009;Helms, 1998,), crown depth, length and height was measured in all six individuals per each species. Total volume was then calculated using the following equation (Zhu et al., 2021): ...
... This area, also a place where the most of trees have been densely planted surround the temple. The definition of tree used in this study is a perennial woody plant that has a more or less spreading crown that is supported at some distance off the ground by the main stem (diameter ≥ 10 cm at breast height) [7,8]. The inner part of the zone 1 has become an integral component of preserving the Borobudur temple. ...
... These conditions can reduce the physical strength and weaken the robustness of the stem and so it will cause the tree to fall down anytime (Figs. [6][7][8]. By considering the huge diameter of the trunk and the height of the tree, if it falls towards the temple building then it may cause a very serious physical damage. ...
The Borobudur complex temple constitutes an architectural masterpiece representing the nature of Buddhist symbols and their natural surroundings. Vegetation around the temple, especially the trees grown in the inner part of zone 1, plays a very important role as green barrier to the temple and also preserving the ecological function as well as the spiritual value of this historical heritage. Any plants grown in this area may have a direct impact on the temple through various risks, such as lateral root systems, falling trees or branches, insect hosts, or seed dispersal. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the potential risk of various existing trees in the inner part of zone 1 of the Borobudur conservation area. The result showed that there were 613 individual trees from 93 different species grown in this area. Among these, there were 12 individuals categorized as high risk (1.96%), 73 individuals (11.91%) classified as medium risk, and 521 individuals (84.99%) were low risk, and only 7 individuals (1.14%) had lesser risk. All the individual trees that have been categorized as high-risk should be carefully managed in order to reduce the hazard risk that may harm the Borobudur temple preservation. The tree risk monitoring and evaluation should be done periodically as the anticipation system to control any of possible risk that may threats the preservation of Borobudur temple. The assessment model performed in this paper can be used as an approach to identify the potential risk of various trees to the preservation of heritage building.
... A tree is a woody perennial of a species typically forming a single self-supporting main stem and having a definite crown (Gschwantner et al., 2009). Since immemorial, human beings have found trees useful in their dayto-day affairs. ...
... Canopy cover greater than 10 % is the international definition of forest, but the definition of forests has changed over time and space, therefore, quantifying canopy cover is also a better alternative (Halperin et al., 2016). Generally, canopy cover is the percentage of the land area covered by the vertical projection of the tree crowns (Gschwantner, 2009;Jennings, 1999). But measuring and monitoring the canopy cover of a landscape using a suitable flexible method is always a challenging task. ...
Quantifying canopy cover using Random Forest (RF) model’s appropriate tuning parameters value and sensor based predictor variables is always challenging, especially in fragmented dry deciduous forests. Therefore, this study was designed to compare the performances of Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 based models using the RF model for predicting canopy cover, and assess variables relative importance and correlation. Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 based bands and spectral indices were used as predictor variables. We compared different mtry, ntree and bag fraction values of RF model. R-square (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE) were used for comparing the model performance. The result showed that lowest RMSE value associated with default value (predictors/3) or more than default value of mtry, with bag fraction 0.3-0.7 for Sentinel-2 and 0.3-0.4 for Landsat-8 based full model. Model accuracy has increased and stabilized with increase number of tree, and received the lowest RMSE to ntree more than 1000. Except SWIR indices based model of Landsat-8, all other Landsat-8 based model’s accuracy was lesser compared to Sentinel-2 based models. Model accuracy of Sentinel-2 based full model (except red edge) was marginally better (R2 = 0.899, RMSE = 6.883 %) than Landsat-8 based full model (R2 = 0.886, RMSE = 7.089%). But with incorporation of red edge based indices, full model RMSE had decreased further 6.883% to 6.747%, and R2 had increased 0.899 to 0.918. Sentinel-2 based full model tendency to spread variable importance among more variables, but Landsat-8 based full model slightly tendency to concentrate variable importance with fewer variables. However, SWIR bands were the most important predictor variables and highly correlated with canopy cover. These findings can solve the choice of the parameters value of the RF model, and the use of the Sentinel-2 based model will be superior than Landsat-8 based model.
