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During this current age of big data, the security of sensitive data in the cyberspace has become utmost important. Blockchain, as a new age technology, provides the necessary tools to ensure data integrity and data protection using some encryption. Smaller transaction size and higher transaction efficiency are the essential requirements of the bloc...
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... shown in Fig. 5, the time complexity of RSA and ECC is O log 2 [13,14]. Compared to RSA, ECC has a lower growth rate. RSA focuses on fast and straightforward encryption and verification [13], which is easier to implement and understand. However, the process of key generation, signing, and decryption is slower [15]. Under the same safety level, ECC has ...
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Big Data is a growing concept, offering us opportunities, that were not available before in many fields. However security and privacy issues are magnified by large amounts of heterogenous data. Ciphertext-Policy Attribute Based Encryption is a promising cryptographic primitive for the security of cloud storage system, which can bring fine-grained a...
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... Examples of well-known public-key cryptosystems are ECC, ElGamal, RSA, DSA, and Diffie-Hellman. Compared with other well-known public-key cryptosystems, ECC is more suitable candidate due to its ability to provide high level of security while using a minimal key size [42,43,44,45]. ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) is rapidly permeating critical domains, enabling the interconnection and utilization of diverse devices on a large scale while streaming vast volumes of data. In domains like telehealth, intelligent transportation, and autonomous agriculture, ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of collected and exchanged data is paramount. However, the resource limitations and heterogeneous nature of IoT devices often render traditional cryptography-based techniques ineffective or even infeasible for secure data transmission. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop and implement lightweight, secure, and scalable schemes for data transmission. In this paper, we propose a novel Lightweight Secure and Scalable Scheme (LS3) for data transmission in IoT environments. LS3 is comprised of three phases and utilizes an efficient combination of symmetric keys and Elliptic Curve Menezes–Qu–Vanstone asymmetric key agreement protocol. Through a comprehensive analysis, we demonstrate that LS3 excels in terms of security and scalability and outperforms other existing schemes in terms of computation and communication costs.
... Moreover, blockchain technology is expected to enhance the supply chain network's transparency, as [14] noted. The innovation mentioned above presents novel prospects for improved traceability and regulation of commodities, as it enables comprehensive tracking of a product's complete history with greater precision [15]. The notion of sustainability is also introduced in this context. ...
... According to [10], this technology offers various opportunities for quality control of individuals, commodities, and transportation, facilitating a more feasible and lucid implementation of a sustainable supply chain. According to [15], implementing traceability measures can increase awareness among individuals and communities regarding supply chain processes, thereby exposing any participant to questionable practices within the supply chain. ...
There has been a rise in the demand for blockchain-based smart contract development platforms and language implementations. On the other hand, smart contracts and blockchain applications are generated using non-standard software life cycles, which means that, for example, distributed applications are rarely updated, or bugs are fully addressed by releasing a newer version, leading to security flaws and challenges for users to adopt the technology. Smart contracts have gained significant attention due to their potential to automate and secure various transactions in diverse domains. However, the increasing adoption of smart contracts has also raised concerns about security vulnerabilities and potential risks. In this paper, an overview of smart contracts was discussed in detail. It further distinguished and compared smart contracts security with conventional security regarding security, privacy, communication channel, etc. Different platforms for smart contracts, such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Counterparty, Stellar, Monax, and Lisk, are also discussed in this paper. Some proposed techniques are used in different areas for handling security threats in smart contracts. In addition, a taxonomy of the smart contracts security application was proposed, which attempts to solve some of the flaws and inadequacies in smart contracts. The study also provides a comprehensive smart contracts security scenario with different techniques. Lastly, the possible attacks posed by threats and vulnerabilities of the smart contracts are provided. The security threats and vulnerabilities addressed in this study are unique to smart contracts.
... The Keystore is responsible for account management, identification and verification and uses asymmetric cryptography and digital signatures. Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) was chosen because many other blockchain systems already use the same algorithm, making it compatible with multiple platforms and providing a higher level of security than the classic Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) algorithm 30,31 . The JSON-RPC API uses invocations to distribute data and information between the DAP platform and the blockchain. ...
Background: Traditional publishing models, open access and major publishers, cannot adequately address the key challenges of academic publishing today: Speed of peer review, recognition of work and incentive mechanisms, transparency and thrust of the system.
Methods: To address these challenges, the authors propose Decentralised Academic Publishing (DAP), which is based on the novel HashNET DLT platform. The DAP introduces several innovative components: tracking the activities of all participants in the peer review process using blockchain and smart contracts, the introduction of the Scholarly Wallet for holding reputation (non-fungible) and reward (fungible) tokens, the use of the Scholarly Wallet as the main interface to the DAP platform, the Virtual Editor that enables automatic discovery of the research area and invitation of reviewers, and finally the global database of evaluated reviewers, ranked by the quality of their previous work.
Results: The DAP platform is in the development phase, with the design and functionalities of all modules defined. An exception is the central component of DAP, the Scholarly Wallet module, whose first prototype has already been created, tested and published. The implementation of DAP is planned for the next phase of the HorizonEurope TruBlo project and other research initiatives. The DAP platform will be connected to the publishing ecosystem: 1) as a backend system (distributed blockchain database) for existing publishing platforms and 2) as a standalone publishing platform with its own API interface.
Conclusions: The authors believe that DAP has the potential to significantly improve academic peer review and knowledge dissemination. It is expected that the use of blockchain technology, the fast HashNET consensus platform and tokens for reward (fungible) and reputation/ranking (non-fungible) will lead to a more efficient and transparent way of rewarding all participants in the peer review process and ultimately advance scientific research.
... Blockchain technology has become increasingly interesting because Blockchain is the key attribute to authentication, confidentiality, and data integrity without a third-party organization, and thus creates interested areas of study, particularly in the field of technological challenges and limitations [1]. The most recent advancements in information technology have resulted in a massive flow of information and the vast amount of sensitive data stored therein, making them engrossed and vulnerable to cyber-attacks that result in data hacking and alteration [2]. The encryption algorithms used in blockchain implementation are the foundation. ...
A blockchain is a decentralized database solution that contains a huge number of data records that are verified by the nodes that are part of the chain. The data is registered in a public directory with details about each completed transaction. Blockchain is a decentralized solution that requires no third-party organization. All the nodes are shared and accessible for any transaction that has ever been completed in Blockchain. This feature makes the system transparent rather than centralized third-party transactions. Furthermore, the nodes in Blockchain are all anonymous, making transactions safer for others. However, while Blockchain appears to be an appropriate solution for transactions by utilizing cryptocurrencies, some technological challenges and constraints remain to be examined and addressed. High transaction integrity, memory consumption, complexity, speed, protection, and node privacy are required to avoid attacks and attempts to distort transactions in Blockchain. This paper proposed an evaluation of the RSA algorithm used in the design of some blockchain technology by adding a new variable to improve memory consumption. In addition, a modified hash function (SHA-3) was suggested by replacing the operations (AND) and (NOT) with (ADD) arithmetic operation to improve hashing speed. The primarily results reduced the process of memory consumption and increased the complexity in amendment RSA algorithm and hashing speed. Finally, some compression between suggested algorithms (amendment RSA and modified SHA-3) among origin and similar algorithms to memory, security, and speed was demonstrated to improve the suggested algorithms’ security, performance, and efficiency.KeywordsBlockchainRSASHA-3AlgorithmsBlockchain technology in healthcare
... ECC has its security based on the difficulty of solving the Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem (ECDLP), which is considered more challenging to solve than the Integer Factorization Problem (IFP) used by RSA or the DLP, which is the basis of the ElGamal encryption scheme [24]. The advantage of elliptic curves is that they ensure a level of security equivalent to that of existing public-key systems but with shorter key lengths [7,18,25], as shown in Table 1. ...
The advances on recent communication paradigms brings new security and privacy challenges, mainly about personal data collection by smart devices. Resource constrained devices face serious issues to run complex cryptographic algorithms. Trying to evaluate the performance impact of those algorithms in usual and common devices used in smart homes, in this paper we tested the impact of different cryptographic algorithms in low computational devices, typically used in smart devices applied in smart homes, testing different security configurations and using the two most used transport protocols (HTTP and MQTT). The experiment measures their effects on six commonly used embedded devices in IoT WSNs: ESP8622, ESP32, and Raspberry Pi (RPi) from 1 to 4. The experiment measured the power consumption, message delay, and additional message length (bytes). Moreover, the analysis was also used to model security algorithms. The experimental results from long runs (72 hours) reveal the cryptographic solution choice is significant for the message delay and additional message length.
... First, performance may be challenging because data integrity is at stake [85]. Furthermore, implementation integrity in the blockchain domain faces several other risks, including selecting algorithms that should consider various issues [88]. Ensuring stakeholders' knowledge integrity is also worth considering [89], as nodes exchange and integrate data simultaneously [90]. ...
... It can also be observed in different strategies to increase efficiency and reduce cost, especially in digitization [92]. Another critical motivation was discussing the required transaction size for efficiency effects, which can benefit data protection and integrity [88]. ...
... It can be done through the blockchain's well-formed transfers, verification and auditing. The number of potential data integrity risks can be reduced [88]. While more effort is needed to better blockchain technology, the privacy, integrity and availabilities provided to our users are some of the positive elements of this technology. ...
A smart contract is a digital program of transaction protocol (rules of contract) based on the consensus architecture of blockchain. Smart contracts with Blockchain are modern technologies that have gained enormous attention in scientific and practical applications. A smart contract is the central aspect of a blockchain that facilitates blockchain as a platform outside the cryptocurrency spectrum. The development of blockchain technology, with a focus on smart contracts, has advanced significantly in recent years. However, research on the smart contract idea has weaknesses in the implementation sectors based on a decentralized network that shares an identical state. This paper extensively reviews smart contracts based on multi-criteria analysis, challenges and motivations. Therefore, implementing blockchain in multicriteria research is required to increase the efficiency of interaction between users via supporting information exchange with high trust. Implementing blockchain in the multi-criteria analysis is necessary to increase the efficiency of interaction between users via supporting information exchange and with high confidence, detecting malfunctioning, helping users with performance issues, reaching a consensus, deploying distributed solutions and allocating plans, tasks and joint missions. The smart contract with decision-making performance, planning and execution improves the implementation based on efficiency, sustainability and management. Furthermore, the uncertainty and supply chain performance lead to improved users’ confidence in offering new solutions in exchange for problems in smart contacts. Evaluation includes code analysis and performance, while development performance can be under development.
... To a great extent, the efficiency of blockchain depends on the encryption algorithm [41]. Thus, in the proposed framework, we compared the two well-known encryption algorithms, elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) [42] and RSA [43], for time complexity and implementation of transaction validation. The relative pseudocode of ECC and RSA is given in Algorithms 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. ...
The electronic tendering and bidding system has realized the digitalization, networking, and high integration of the whole process of tendering, bidding, bid evaluation, and contract, which has a wide range of applications. However, the trust degree, cooperation, and transaction efficiency of the parties involved in electronic bidding are low, and bidding fraud and collusion are forbidden repeatedly. Blockchain technology has the characteristics of decentralization, transparent transactions, traceability, non-tampering and forgery detection, and data security. This paper proposes a design path of an electronic bidding system based on blockchain technology, which aims to solve the efficiency, trust, and security of the electronic trading process. By building the underlying architecture platform of blockchain and embedding the business process of electronic bidding, this realizes the transparency, openness, and traceability during the whole process of electronic bidding. This paper uses qualitative and quantitative methods to prove the effectiveness of the system.
... Asymmetric encryption algorithms are mainly applied in the blockchain, where they are responsible on completing encryption/decryption bay using two asymmetric ciphers, the ''public key'' and the ''private key''. Commonly used asymmetric encryption algorithms in blockchain are Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) and elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) [65]. ...
Recommender systems have been widely used in different application domains including energy-preservation, e-commerce, healthcare, social media, etc. Such applications require the analysis and mining of massive amounts of various types of user data, including demographics, preferences, social interactions, etc. in order to develop accurate and precise recommender systems. Such datasets often include sensitive information, yet most recommender systems are focusing on the models’ accuracy and ignore issues related to security and the users’ privacy. Despite the efforts to overcome these problems using different risk reduction techniques, none of them has been completely successful in ensuring cryptographic security and protection of the users’ private information. To bridge this gap, the blockchain technology is presented as a promising strategy to promote security and privacy preservation in recommender systems, not only because of its security and privacy salient features, but also due to its resilience, adaptability, fault tolerance and trust characteristics. This paper presents a holistic review of blockchain-based recommender systems covering challenges, open issues and solutions. Accordingly, a well-designed taxonomy is introduced to describe the security and privacy challenges, overview existing frameworks and discuss their applications and benefits when using blockchain before indicating opportunities for future research.
... Fig. 4 shows the graph of E 23 . The set of points on this curve is { (1,3), (1,20), (4,11), (4,12), (7,9), (7,14), (9,3), (9,20), (13,3), (13,20), (15,4), (15,19), (16,5), (16,18), (19,10), (19,13), (20,0)}. ...
Cryptographic algorithms consist of two parts, a key and an algorithm, to encrypt and decrypt data. The key is an essential part that works with the algorithm. The security of encryption schemes depends on the key size (key length) and the longer the key, the better the security it provides. Applying an elliptic curve has for key agreement provides a high-performance architecture and high security. The main process for calculating key points in Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is called scalar multiplication, which relates to point addition and point doubling. An efficient algorithm, proposed as the Large Scalar Multiplication Algorithm using Modified Pell Numbers (LSMA-MPN), was introduced to speed up the calculation of points on elliptic curves during large scalar multiplications. This system also reduced computation time by applying Modified Pell numbers in a 22 matrix representation. The experimental results showed that computation time was reduced by approximately 67% in comparison with the computation time required by a general algorithm.
... This guarantees the block records can not be altered. The hash feature need to be robust because it doesn't permit to calculate its reverse hash [62]. The BC's transaction data is protected via Table 3: BC-based security preventions [60]. ...
... Blockchain Structure[62]. ...
Network management for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is challenging, keeping in view the high mobility of the vehicles. Hence, for smooth execution of various operations such as rescue, surveillance, and crowdsensing in a UAV environment, softwarization of UAV SGI networks becomes essential, which separates control functions from hardware, i.e., data from the control plane. Using softwarization, various complex operations in the UAV environment can be executed with an increase in UAVs. However, with an increase in the complexity of UAV network management, secure communication among UAVs becomes a tedious task as most of the communication among UAVs takes place using an open SGI network, i.e., the Internet. Software-defined networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV) are the key softwarization enabling techniques in fifth-generation (5G) networks, which are used to manage secure network services with reduced capital and operating expenditures. However, different softwarization layer may suffer from controller hijacking, user authentication, access control, and resource consumption attack. Till date, many solutions reported in the literature for this problem are centralized controlled that suffers from single-point of failure and also prone to various security attacks. Motivated from this, in this paper, a systematic and comprehensive survey is presented, which is based on blockchain (BC)-envisioned secure and trusted softwarized UAV network management. We also propose a BC-based softwarized UAV architecture to make the communication network secure and easily manageable. It can offer flexible and dynamic decision capabilities for network management services even in open 5G-enabled UAV networks. Finally, we analyzed the research challenges posed and future challenges in this area.
