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The mycotoxin, patulin (4-hydroxy-4H-furo [3, 2c] pyran-2[6H]-one), is produced by a number of fungi common to fruit- and vegetable-based products, most notably apples. Despite patulin's original discovery as an antibiotic, it has come under heavy scrutiny for its potential negative health effects. Studies investigating these health effects have pr...
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... It has been demonstrated that washing under high-pressure water lowers PAT levels in apple juice by 21%-54%. Moreover, washing field apples reduced PAT levels by 10%-100%, depending on the initial PAT content and washing operation (Moake et al., 2005). ...
Patulin, a toxic secondary metabolite produced by certain molds ( Penicillium , Aspergillus , and Byssochlamys ), poses a significant health risk when present in apple juice products above permissible levels. Its presence is a major concern for both consumers and regulatory bodies due to its potential carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. Minimizing patulin concentration in apple juice products requires a multifaceted approach involving various stages of apple fruit production, from orchard management to processing and storage. This review explores the pre‐ and postharvest strategies associated with minimizing patulin concentration in apple juice products. It examines the role of good agricultural practices in reducing mold contamination in orchards and discusses the importance of proper postharvest handling, including fruit sorting and washing to remove contaminated apples before processing. During processing, factors such as temperature, pH, and processing time play crucial roles in minimizing patulin levels. Innovative processing technologies, such as pulsed electric fields (PEF), ultraviolet (UV) radiation, high‐pressure processing, enzymatic, and chemical degradation have shown promise in reducing patulin concentration while preserving the sensory and nutritional quality of the juice. Furthermore, effective storage practices, such as maintaining proper temperature and humidity levels, are essential for preventing patulin formation during storage. Continuous monitoring and analytical testing for patulin content throughout the production chain are necessary to ensure compliance with regulatory standards and to guarantee the safety of apple juice products. Despite advancements in technology and production practices, challenges remain in effectively minimizing patulin concentration. These include the need for further research to develop more efficient detection methods, the adoption of sustainable and eco‐friendly practices in orchard management, and the dissemination of knowledge and best practices to stakeholders across the apple juice supply chain. In conclusion, minimizing patulin concentration in apple juice products requires a holistic approach that integrates preventive measures, innovative processing technologies, and stringent quality control measures. By addressing these challenges, the apple juice industry can ensure the production of safe and high‐quality products that meet regulatory standards and consumer expectations.
... Patulin (PAT) is a secondary metabolite produced by fungi such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Byssochlamys and Paecilomyces (Tangni et al., 2023). Studies have shown that PAT exhibit toxic effects on various human physiological system including kidneys, intestinal tract, immune systems, and genetic material in human chromosomes (Agriopoulou et al., 2020;Han et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2021;Moake et al., 2005;Xiao et al., 2019). In response, a number of safety measures have been implemented to mitigate its occurrence and limit exposure in both the environment and food products. ...
... expansum), Penicillium patulum (Penicillium griseofulvum), and Penicillium crustosum [5]. According to previous research, it has been indicated that Penicillium expansum is the predominant fungus responsible for the production of patulin [6]. According to Ostry et al. [7], the International Agency for Research on Cancer has classed the toxicity of patulin as a group 3 (not carcinogen to humans). ...
... PAT is a mycotoxin produced by certain molds, such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys species. PAT is commonly found in apples and apple juices [7][8][9]. The level of PAT in food is regulated by many countries and food products containing PAT above the threshold limit are not sold. ...
... Since PAT is most commonly examined in apple juices [7][8][9], the implementation of the PAT aptasensor was demonstrated herein in these samples. Apple juice samples were purchased from the local market. ...
Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin that adversely affects the health of humans and animals. PAT can be particularly found in products such as apples and apple juice and can cause many health problems if consumed. Therefore, accurate and sensitive determination of PAT is very important for food quality and human and animal health. A voltammetric aptasensor was introduced in this study for PAT determination while measuring the changes at redox probe signal. The limit of detection (LOD) was found to be 0.18 pg/mL in the range of 1–104 pg/mL of PAT in buffer medium under optimum experimental conditions. The selectivity of the PAT aptasensor against ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1 and deoxynivalenol mycotoxins was examined and it was found that the aptasensor was very selective to PAT. PAT determination was performed in an apple juice medium for the first time by using a smartphone-integrated portable device, and accordingly, an LOD of 0.47 pg/mL was achieved in diluted apple juice medium. A recovery range of 91.24–93.47% was obtained for PAT detection.
... PAT is of lesser concern than AFs or DON, with only one or two contamination cases reported yearly in quarantine for imported apple juice, which is markedly fewer than the number of AF cases [10]. Nevertheless, PAT is a crucial mycotoxin as it is present in beverages often consumed by infants, heightening contamination risks [11]. PAT is reported to cause cell damage through oxidative stress, differing from the carcinogenic toxicity of AFs [12]. ...
In addressing the problem of mycotoxin toxicity and contamination risk, we conducted following studies encompassing toxicity evaluation and detection techniques.
Toxicity evaluation of mycotoxins involved an exploration of the effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), patulin (PAT), and deoxynivalenol (DON) exposures, as well as their derivatives and glycosides, using DNA microarray analysis in a yeast cell system. AFB1 induced gene expression changes related to the sphingolipid metabolic pathway, resulting in cell cycle abnormalities. As for the comparison among type-B trichothecene mycotoxins, 15-acetyl-DON (15AcDON), fusarenon X (FusX), and DON exhibited higher toxicity. The assessment of PAT toxicity also considered the effect of ascorbic acid (AsA), revealing a recovery of cell proliferation and normalization of gene expression upon AsA addition. In addition to yeast cell testing, toxicity evaluation using green algae highlighted distinct toxicities between 15AcDON and FusX under specific light irradiation conditions.
Exploring the regulation of AF synthesis through light irradiation tests revealed that blue–green light at 500–525 nm maximized AF synthesis, whereas a wavelength that completely inhibited AF synthesis was not identified in the visible light range of 400–720 nm. The development of a simple detection medium for AF-synthetic fungi involved the incorporation of AF by alfa-cyclodextrin and the addition of activated carbon (AC). The inclusion of AC not only reduced scattering light around a colony on the culture plate but also thought to be provided the necessary metal ions for improved observation efficiency.
... Among mycotoxins, patulin (PAT) is a highly polar lactone with low molecular weight (154,12 g/mol) ( Figure 1). It is produced by many species of the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus and Byssochlamys, being Penicillium expansum one of the main producer and responsible for PAT contamination of apples and their derived products [2,4]. PAT is soluble in water and in various solvents such as ethanol, methanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, etc. ...
... Compared to raw foods, the presence of PAT in processed foods is not frequent, since the clarification, filtration, and enzymatic treatment during juice processing and fermentation during winemaking significantly reduce its content [1,5]. Acute exposure to PAT can cause gastrointestinal symptoms including nausea, vomiting, ulcers, intestinal bleeding, and duodenal lesions, as well as impaired intestinal barrier function accompanied by kidney damage [2], while longterm (chronic) exposure includes neurotoxic, immunotoxic, immunosuppressive, genotoxic, teratogenic, and potentially carcinogenic effects [4]. In relation to the analytical determination, methods to confirm the presence of PAT usually include specific detection techniques, such as mass spectrometry (MS), previous separation by liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC). ...
Patulin (PAT) is one of the most common mycotoxins produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species and are often associated with fruits and fruit by-products, mostly apple derivatives, although it has been detected in infant food and cereals. This toxin has shown a mutagenic and carcinogenic effect. Thus, the development of rapid and accurate methods for PAT detection is of utmost importance. Currently, the most widely used methods for the analysis and detection of mycotoxins are based on chromatography, including liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography coupled to a mass detector (GC-MS) since these techniques provide high precision, selectivity, and sensitivity. In this work, we show the preliminary results about the development of a GC-MS method for the detection of PAT without derivatization. Usually, the detection of mycotoxins by GC-MS needs a derivatization all non-volatile and polar compounds. This is one drawback of gas chromatography against liquid chromatographic technique for the determination of mycotoxins. In this sense, the PAT monitoring method by GC-MS here proposed is an alternative and useful technique to maintain high quality foodstuffs and to ensure food safety.
... The patE gene is part of the patulin producing biosynthetic gene cluster in P. expansum and the patE gene encodes the extracellular patulin synthase. Patulin is a mycotoxin with strong antimicrobial activity towards bacteria and fungi [26]. PatE is a flavindependent enzyme that belongs to the glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) oxidoreductase family [27]. ...
The filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger is well known for its high protein secretion capacity and a preferred host for homologous and heterologous protein production. To improve the protein production capacity of A. niger even further, a set of dedicated protein production strains was made containing up to 10 glucoamylase landing sites (GLSs) at predetermined sites in the genome. These GLSs replace genes encoding enzymes abundantly present or encoding unwanted functions. Each GLS contains the promotor and terminator region of the glucoamylase gene (glaA), one of the highest expressed genes in A. niger. Integrating multiple gene copies, often realized by random integration, is known to boost protein production yields. In our approach the GLSs allow for rapid targeted gene replacement using CRISPR/Cas9‐mediated genome editing. By introducing the same or different unique DNA sequences (dubbed KORE sequences) in each GLS and designing Cas9‐compatible single guide RNAs, one is able to select at which GLS integration of a target gene occurs. In this way a set of identical strains with different copy numbers of the gene of interest can be easily and rapidly made to compare protein production levels. As an illustration of its potential, we successfully used the expression platform to generate multicopy A. niger strains producing the Penicillium expansum PatE::6xHis protein catalysing the final step in patulin biosynthesis. The A. niger strain expressing 10 copies of the patE::6xHis expression cassette produced about 70 μg·mL⁻¹ PatE protein in the culture medium with a purity just under 90%.
... Once it has infected the host, P. expansum produces a range of secondary metabolites as virulence factors and one of the most studied and notorious metabolites is patulin. Patulin is a mycotoxin with strong antibiotic activity towards a range of bacteria and fungi, which aids the competitiveness of P. expansum [5]. Moreover, patulin is carcinogenic towards mammals and its levels in food products are therefore bound to regulations prescribed by organizations such as the US Food and Drug Administration and the World Health Organization [6,7]. ...
... Additional supporting information may be found online in the Supporting Information section at the end of the article. . 1 H NMR (top) and 13 C (bottom) spectra of (2-(2-acetoxyethyl)furan-3-yl)methyl acetate (4). Fig. S9. 1 H NMR (top) and 13 C (bottom) spectra of (2-(2-acetoxyethyl)-2-hydroxy-5-oxo-2,5-dihydrofuran-3-yl)methyl acetate (5). Fig. S10. 1 H NMR (top) and 13 C (bottom) spectra of (Z)-ascladiol diacetate (6). ...
Patulin synthase (PatE) from Penicillium expansum is a flavin‐dependent enzyme that catalyses the last step in the biosynthesis of the mycotoxin patulin. This secondary metabolite is often present in fruit and fruit‐derived products, causing postharvest losses. The patE gene was expressed in Aspergillus niger allowing purification and characterization of PatE. This confirmed that PatE is active not only on the proposed patulin precursor ascladiol but also on several aromatic alcohols including 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural. By elucidating its crystal structure, details on its catalytic mechanism were revealed. Several aspects of the active site architecture are reminiscent of that of fungal aryl‐alcohol oxidases. Yet, PatE is most efficient with ascladiol as substrate confirming its dedicated role in biosynthesis of patulin.
... It has been identified as a potential hazard for human health and food safety [18]. Several studies evidenced patulin can cause adverse health effects in humans, including cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and immunotoxicity [42,141]. The European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration have set maximum limits for patulin in food products, including oranges [26]. ...
This study identified secondary metabolites produced by Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Penicillium digitatum in fruits of two blood orange cultivars before harvest. Analysis was performed by UHPLC–Q-TOF-MS. Three types of fruits were selected, asymptomatic, symptomatic showing necrotic lesions caused by hail, and mummified. Extracts from peel and juice were analyzed separately. Penicillium digitatum was the prevalent species recovered from mummified and hail-injured fruits. Among 47 secondary metabolites identified, 16, 18, and 13 were of A. alternata, C. gloeosporioides, and P. digitatum, respectively. Consistently with isolations, indicating the presence of these fungi also in asymptomatic fruits, the metabolic profiles of the peel of hail-injured and asymptomatic fruits did not differ substantially. Major differences were found in the profiles of juice from hail-injured and mummified fruits, such as a significant higher presence of 5,4-dihydroxy-3,7,8-trimethoxy-6C-methylflavone and Atrovenetin, particularly in the juice of mummified fruits of the Tarocco Lempso cultivar. Moreover, the mycotoxins patulin and Rubratoxin B were detected exclusively in mummified fruits. Patulin was detected in both the juice and peel, with a higher relative abundance in the juice, while Rubratoxin B was detected only in the juice. These findings provide basic information for evaluating and preventing the risk of contamination by mycotoxins in the citrus fresh fruit supply chain and juice industry.
... As a result, the maximum permitted levels (MLs) set by the European Commission were 50 µg/L in apple juices, 25 µg/kg in apple puree and 10 µg/kg in apple products for infants and young children [19,20]. Previous studies showed that apple juice and nectar are the main contributors to PAT intake [21,22]. In Belgium, apple juices were found to be PATcontaminated up to 38.8 µg/L [23] and up to 123 µg/L [24]. ...
Apple and apple derivatives (e.g., juices, puree) are the most important foodstuffs contaminated with patulin (PAT) in the human diet. To routinely monitor these foodstuffs and ensure that the PAT levels are below the maximum permitted levels, a method using liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been developed. Afterwards, the method was successfully validated, reaching quantification limits of 1.2 μg/L for apple juice and cider, and 2.1 μg/kg for puree. Recovery experiments were performed with samples fortified with PAT in the range of 25–75 μg/L for juice/cider and 25–75 μg/kg for puree. The results show overall average recovery rates of 85% (RSDr = 13.1%) and 86% (RSDr = 2.6%) with maximum extended uncertainty (Umax, k = 2) of 34 and 35% for apple juice/cider and puree, respectively. Next, the validated method was applied to 103 juices, 42 purees and 10 ciders purchased on the Belgian market in 2021. PAT was not found in the cider samples, but it was present in 54.4% of the tested apple juices (up to 191.1 μg/L) and 7.1% of the puree samples (up to 35.9 μg/kg). When comparing the results to the maximum levels set by Regulation EC n° 1881/2006 (i.e., 50 μg/L for juices and 25 μg/kg for puree for adults, and 10 μg/kg for infants and young children), exceedances were observed in five apple juices and one puree sample, for infants and young children. Using these data, a potential risk assessment for consumers can be suggested, and it is found that the quality of apple juices and purees sold in Belgium needs further regular surveillance.
