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The aim of this study was to apply a life cycle assessment (LCA) method, from cradle to gate, to quantify the environmental burdens per 1,000 kg of eggs produced in the 4 major hen-egg production systems in the United Kingdom: 1) cage, 2) barn, 3) free range, and 4) organic. The analysis was based on an approach that applied a structural model for...
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Citations
... LCA has been extensively applied to various egg production systems globally, including countries such as the Czech Republic [22], Canada [23][24][25][26], Mexico [27], the USA [28], Spain [29], the UK [30,31], Australia [32], the Netherlands [33], and Sweden [34], among others. Across these studies, there is a consistent identification of feed production and manure management practices as the principal contributors to the environmental impacts within the egg production chain. ...
... International studies report the environmental performance of battery cage egg production; however, direct comparisons between studies are uncertain due to frequent differences in the considered modeling. Nevertheless, it is interesting to consider and compare the impacts reported by various studies, including Guillaume et al. [22], Turner et al. [38], Estrada-González et al. [27], Abín et al. [29], Pelletier [24,25], Pelletier et al. [28], Leinonen et al. [30,31], Wiedemann and McGahan [32], Mollenhorst et al. [33], Cederberg et al. [34], and Vergé et al. [26], to the findings of the current study. ...
... Concerning ecotoxicity and ozone depletion, the current study observed an increase of 13.11 CTUe and 2.76 × 10 −5 , respectively, in comparison to the assessment conducted by Guillaume et al. [22]. Conversely, in the context of fossil CED, this study demonstrated a reduction of 6.73 in comparison to the evaluations carried out by Leinonen et al. [30,31]. ...
Simple Summary
Promoting sustainability in food production has become essential to meet market demands, mainly due to its tendency to expand throughout the world. Life cycle assessment is a methodology recognized for providing quantitative information on the environmental impacts caused throughout the production cycle in different categories. The objective of this study was to carry out an assessment of the life cycle, from the cradle to the farm gate, following ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, for the battery cage egg production systems and associated products in Brazil. The results showed that interventions focused on feed formulation, manure management, and the welfare of laying hens play a fundamental role in promoting sustainability in battery cage egg production systems.
Abstract
Brazil stands as one of the world’s leading producers of animal protein, ranking sixth in global egg production. However, estimated growth in production demand, along with environmental impacts, represents a potential threat to the sustainability of the food system. Methods for assessing and quantifying the environmental impacts generated by Brazilian egg production remain scarce, lacking current reports on comparative effects or guiding standards. The objective of this study was to conduct a life cycle assessment from cradle to farm gate, adhering to ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, for the battery cage egg production systems and associated products in Brazil, with the aim of supporting and promoting sustainability improvements in the Brazilian egg industry. The entire life cycle modeling and process sustainability analysis were executed using the openLCA software, integrated with the Ecoinvent database. Emissions related to egg production yielded results of 65.06 kg SO2 eq., 27.74 kg N eq., 3086.71 kg CO2 eq., 75,152.66 CTUe, 2.75 × 10⁻⁵ CFC-11 eq., and 10,044.68 kg MJ eq. per ton of eggs produced. These findings can serve as comparative benchmarks for future studies and for analyzing data across different egg production systems in Brazil.
... Sub-system 5 shows the values of environmental impact on laying hens feeding, which is mainly affected by feed consumption, as it is directly related with the amount of manure produced and its composition, influencing on the emissions from the poultry industry productive system (growth and product generation). Similar behaviors were reported by Leinonen [26], who concluded that changes in food consumption and composition have effects both on environmental impacts during growth production and food processing, as well as on subsequent emissions from poultry manure during housing, storage and field application. ...
... The different physical and chemical features of poultry excretions provide them with qualities to be used either as fertilizer or animal feed [26]. However, when they are not exploited properly, they emit gases such as ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4) at a lower proportion, which are produced during the productive, storage and land application stages [27]. ...
In recent years, fish production has increased worldwide due to population growth and consumer interest in this type of product, proving an increase in the waste generated, with concomitant negative impact on the environment. Ecological footprint methodology is one of the sustainability indicators most used for assessing process environmental impact. This technique quantifies the effect of anthropogenic activities on the environment concerning water, forest products, infrastructure and carbon footprint, providing integral, comparable and reliable results. In this study, the environmental impact generated by taking advantage of red tilapia (Oreochromis Spp.) viscera to produce chemical silage and its implementation in the feeding of laying hens was determined, using the ecological footprint methodology as an indicator of sustainability. The productive system consisted of a red tilapia (Oreochromis ssp.) production farm located in the municipality of San Jerónimo, Antioquia (Colombia). The productive variables of the laying hens, laying percentage, egg weight and feed conversion ratio were evaluated. This chemical silage production process generates a reduction of 1.493 kg of CO2 per month compared to that generated by fresh viscera and are discharged into shallow dumps. Additionally, the main categories that generate the greatest impact on the production system are the use of natural resources and wastewater disposal. On the other hand, the productive variables of laying hens of the Isa Brown breed were not significantly affected by the inclusion of chemical silage at the 95% significance level, maintaining the percentage of laying and improving feed conversion. It was concluded that the use of fish by-products to produce feed for laying hens generates a reduction in the environmental load when compared to conventional waste disposal processes (landfill disposal). Red tilapia (Oreochromis Spp.) viscera chemical silage can be used as an alternative protein substitute in feeding laying hens for improved production performance. Key words: Ecological footprint, fish waste, layer hen, chemical silage, wastewater
... As such, modelling accounted for both pre-farm supply chain emissions, including the production burden of purchased feeds and raw materials, and the on-farm emissions from layer production and litter management. Subsequent emissions attributed to post-farm processing, packaging, or transport of products beyond the farm gate were not considered, consistent with previous LCA studies analysing egg production systems [50][51][52][53]. A flow diagram describing the LCA system boundary is outlined in Figure 2. Life cycle assessment (LCA) simulation modelling was conducted to assess the im pact of feeding organic trace minerals on the carbon footprint (CFP) of layer production The system boundary encompassed all processes involved in layer production up to fin ished birds being ready to leave the farm (i.e., cradle to farmgate). ...
... As such, modellin accounted for both pre-farm supply chain emissions, including the production burden o purchased feeds and raw materials, and the on-farm emissions from layer production an litter management. Subsequent emissions attributed to post-farm processing, packaging or transport of products beyond the farm gate were not considered, consistent with pre vious LCA studies analysing egg production systems [50][51][52][53]. A flow diagram describin the LCA system boundary is outlined in Figure 2. Outputs from the system are spent hens, saleable eggs, and litter. ...
Simple Summary
This work aims to highlight the importance of mineral form on production performance and egg quality traits using meta-analysis. Sustainability impacts, which focused on the carbon footprint of egg production, were also assessed. Results demonstrated that the inclusion of organic trace minerals, in the form of proteinates, positively impacted key parameters such as hen-day production, feed conversion ratio, egg mass, egg weight, and egg loss. Eggshell parameters such as thickness, strength, weight, and eggshell percentage were also higher, and Haugh unit was 1 point greater with the inclusion of proteinate minerals.
Abstract
The effect of supplementing organic trace minerals (OTM), in the form of mineral proteinates (Bioplex® Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn, Alltech Inc., Nicholasville, KY, USA), in the diets of laying hens was examined using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) statistical software. The impact on production performance, egg quality traits, and sustainability parameters related to the carbon footprint of egg production was assessed. Data were obtained from 32 global studies, comprising 107 dietary assessments of 30,992 laying hens. Overall pooled effect size (raw mean difference) of production performance when dietary organic trace minerals were supplemented either in basal diets, partial replacement of inorganic trace minerals (ITM), or total replacement of ITM, indicated that use of Bioplex minerals resulted in 2.07% higher hen-day production (HDP), whilst feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower by 51.28 g feed/kg egg and 22.82 g feed/dozen eggs, respectively. For egg quality traits, daily egg mass was 0.50 g/hen/day higher and egg weight was 0.48 g per egg greater when Bioplex minerals were incorporated in the diet. The mean difference in egg loss was −0.62%. Eggshell thickness was greater by 0.01 mm, and a higher eggshell strength of 0.14 kgf was observed. Eggshell weight was heavier by 0.20 g, eggshell percentage was higher by 0.15%, and Haugh unit was 1 point higher (0.89). We also carried out a meta-regression of the effects of the study factors (location, year of study, hen breed/strain, age of hens, number of hens, and study duration) on the overall pooled effect size of the production performance and egg quality traits in response to supplementary OTM inclusion, and it indicated that certain factors had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on the results. Finally, a life cycle assessment (LCA) model was selected to evaluate the impact of feeding organic trace mineral proteinates on the carbon footprint (feed and total emission intensities) of the egg production using the data generated from the meta-analysis. Results showed that the inclusion of OTM proteinates resulted in an average drop in feed and total emission intensities per kg eggs of 2.40% and 2.50%, respectively, for a low-global-warming-potential (GWP) diet and a drop of 2.40% and 2.48% for feed and total emissions, respectively, based on high-GWP diet. Based on the overall results, the inclusion of organic trace mineral proteinates in layer diets can benefit production performance and egg quality traits while contributing to a lower carbon footprint.
... As shown later in this paper, consumers often think that cage-free is more environmentally friendly than conventional. While the scientific literature suggests that this is incorrect (Leinonen et al., 2012;Shepherd et al., 2015), it could be why animal welfare is above environmental impact in this ranking exercise. If consumers view animal welfare as an "all-encompassing" attribute, whereas environmental impact may not account for animal welfare, then it could explain the ranking order. ...
... Figure 3 also supports this environmental halo effect attached to animal welfare, as 68% of respondents state that higher animal welfare production systems produce eggs that are better for the environment. This (mis)perception is critical, as Leinonen et al. (2012) and Shepherd et al. (2015) show that conventional production systems have lower environmental impacts due to lower land and resource requirements. ...
... Another noticeable misperception is that most respondents rate cage-free as superior to conventional production with respect to environmental impact and sustainability. However, the literature suggests that the opposite is true, as cage-free systems have lower stocking densities and higher resource requirements (Leinonen et al., 2012;Shepherd et al., 2015). ...
Ten states and many of the largest U.S. food retailers have pledged to transition to 100% cage-free eggs due to increased consumer demand for farm animal welfare attributes in food. As consumer preferences affect investment and production decisions upstream, it is critical to determine whether consumers are fully informed on the ramifications of this animal welfare initiative. This study uses survey data from U.S. egg consumers to understand (i) consumer knowledge of laying hen production systems, (ii) perceptions of different housing systems, and (iii) awareness of retailer cage-free pledges. The results suggest consumer misperceptions over egg labels and limited knowledge of differences between production systems. As such, the results demonstrate the importance of increasing consumer awareness through educational campaigns or other measures before implementing the unfunded transition.
... In egg production systems, similar to those reported for chicken, turkey and ostrich production, the feed production process is largely responsible for contributing to the environmental impacts (Abin et al. 2018;Dekker et al. 2008;Ghasempour and Ahmadi 2016;Leinonen et al. 2012b;Pelletier 2017). Leinonen et al. (2012a) indicated that palm and soybean are the main feed ingredients contributing to the global warming indicators in hen egg production. ...
... Dekker et al. (2011) compared cage and loose housing poultry systems and found that feed conversion of loose housing was greater than that of battery cage systems. Leinonen et al. (2012b) investigated the environmental indicators of free range, cage, organic and barn poultry egg systems in the United Kingdom. The authors reported that feed production, processing, and transport had the highest contribution to the global warming indicator with a 64 to 72% share. ...
... Under the environmental perspective, egg production has been identified as relatively environmental-friendly compared with other animal commodities [8,9]. The resource Environments 2023, 10, 137 3 of 16 co-products and by-products, which at present represents an essential step for conducting research in the circular economy field. ...
Eggs represent one of the most consumed animal products worldwide. In Europe, over 366 million laying hens and 6.1 Mt of derived eggs have been estimated in 2020, and Italy represents the fourth largest producer (41 million hens and 0.79 Mt of eggs). Egg production has been identified as relatively environmental-friendly, but several environmental concerns have been recently raised considering the inefficient spent hens’ management. Spent hens are generally euthanized and composted or incinerated, producing greenhouse gases while at the same time significant nutrients are lost. First, the research reviews the egg supply chain characteristics and the alternative spent hens’ valorization pathways. Then, using the material flow analysis, the research quantifies and qualifies the consistencies of laying hens and protein content included in spent hens across Italy, providing a comprehensive assessment of the national scenario under an environmental and circular perspective. Furthermore, the research develops an inventory of the spent hens’ co-products and by-products in Italy, focusing on the flows of proteins for further environmental studies. The research has highlighted that over 13,948 t of proteins could be extracted, distinguishing between those embedded within offal, feathers and blood. In addition, spent hens can be used for human consumption, as well as for material or energy recovery through anaerobic digestion or microbial fermentation. Results are addressed to farmers, who are required to boost their environmental performances, and public authorities, who must implement sustainable strategies to collect spent hens.
... Egg producers also raise caution over the environmental impact of cage-free systems relative to conventional systems. In the literature, Leinonen et al. (2012) and Shepherd et al. (2015) support this concern, suggesting that the increased hen activity and lower stocking densities of cage-free systems lead to higher environmental impacts relative to conventional systems. 13 ...
... One-third of the producers in their sample left the market following the policy change, with 72% attributing their departure to the more restrictive practice. As the current U.S. administration has expressed concern over industry consolidation in 13 Leinonen et al. (2012) use a life-cycle assessment to explore the environmental impacts and global warming potential of different egg production systems. Their results indicate that the conventional system requires less feed, water, and housing or land than cage-free systems. ...
Several cage-free egg mandates and retailer pledge deadlines are set to take effect in January 2026. Yet it is unknown whether producers can transition to cage-free production at a rate commensurate with these goals. This study uses qualitative and quantitative data from 2 U.S. egg producer surveys to evaluate the operational activities of conventional and cage-free facilities, identify market challenges, and assess the expected transition timeline. Across both studies, producers indicated higher fixed and variable costs in cage-free housing systems, with capital and labor being 2 of the central drivers of the cost increase. While several producers are willing to adopt cage-free production, they are hesitant to view the market shift as an opportunity. Among the most commonly cited barriers are limited customer demand, high capital costs, and a contradiction to environmental sustainability and food security efforts. With the current challenges, respondents are skeptical that the industry will meet the January 2026 voluntary pledge deadlines. The results from this study offer a holistic view of the potential ramifications of the cage-free transition on the egg market and can be used to inform marketing strategies and policy discussions.
... Whey protein isolate had a high impact on eutrophication mainly due to the use of fertilizer and management of manure in the dairy farm, while the significant impact of egg white powder on freshwater and marine eutrophication can be attributed to feed and laying emissions during egg production. 110,111 Furthermore, land use contributes to resource depletion, a factor which is urged to be reduced in the future. 109 The generation of BSG protein isolate requires minimal land use compared to other plant-based or animalbased protein ingredients, which is putatively due to the fact that no additional farmland is required to produce the protein isolate as the land is already being used for barley cultivation, with the protein isolate produced from a byproduct of barley utilization in brewing. ...
There is an urgent requirement to minimize food waste and create more sustainable food systems that address global increases in malnutrition and hunger. The nutritional value of brewers' spent grain (BSG) makes it attractive for upcycling into value-added ingredients rich in protein and fiber having a lower environmental impact than comparable plant-based ingredients. BSG is predictably available in large quantities globally and can therefore play a role in addressing hunger in the developing world via the fortification of humanitarian food aid products. Moreover, addition of BSG-derived ingredients can improve the nutritional profile of foods commonly consumed in more developed regions, which may aid in reducing the prevalence of dietary-related disease and mortality. Challenges facing the widespread utilization of upcycled BSG ingredients include regulatory status, variability of raw material composition, and consumer perception as low-value waste products; however, the rapidly growing upcycled food market suggests increasing consumer acceptability and opportunities for significant market growth via effective new product innovation and communication strategies.
... Several studies have found that the production of chicken feed is the largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions [53,[57][58][59], accounting for 45-83% of greenhouse gas emissions from chicken meat production [60,61]. Of all feedstuffs, imported soybeans have the largest impact on the environment, accounting for 71-79% of the total impact, which can be explained by land use change and transportation [62]. ...
Health and sustainability problems have become a central theme in dialogue in both the scientific community and the public. Our individual choices have a profound, advantageous or disadvantageous impact on our health; the same can be said about our environmental footprint. In this area, we can also make decisions that affect the physical environment positively or negatively. Our narrative review aims to demonstrate that healthy plant-based choices in our diet are linked to choices beneficial for our environment and that these two seemingly distant aspects converge in the context of plant-based diets. We have collected, compared and discussed the results of life cycle analysis (LCA) articles on the current state of the effect of food choice on our environment. Furthermore, we would like to show the opportunities and constraints of implementing plant-based diets.
... Lastly, the lifespan of livestock may differ between farming practices. Generally, also reflected in literature, organically raised livestock tends to live longer than conventional conspecifics (Alig et al., 2012;Boggia et al., 2010;Leinonen et al., 2012). This assumption may raise impacts per produced unit of meat and therefore is accounted for in organic farming with a parameter averaging values of livestock's increased lifespan from literature. ...
