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![The principle of the lithium-ion battery (LiB) showing the intercalation of lithium-ions (yellow spheres) into the anode and cathode matrices upon charge and discharge, respectively [10].](profile/Matt-Ghiji/publication/344448023/figure/fig1/AS:942031924887552@1601609321479/The-principle-of-the-lithium-ion-battery-LiB-showing-the-intercalation-of-lithium-ions.jpg)
The principle of the lithium-ion battery (LiB) showing the intercalation of lithium-ions (yellow spheres) into the anode and cathode matrices upon charge and discharge, respectively [10].
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![Figure 4. Packaging of typical battery systems. Image is adopted from [89].](profile/Matt-Ghiji/publication/344448023/figure/fig3/AS:942031924916224@1601609321537/Packaging-of-typical-battery-systems-Image-is-adopted-from-89_Q320.jpg)
Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) are a proven technology for energy storage systems, mobile electronics, power tools, aerospace, automotive and maritime applications. LiBs have attracted interest from academia and industry due to their high power and energy densities compared to other battery technologies. Despite the extensive usage of LiBs, there is...
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... charging, lithium ions move from the cathode on the positive side of the battery and insert into the anode. The LiB components and processes are illustrated in Figure 1. During the initial charge, intercalated lithium ions react immediately with the solvent of the electrolyte and form a passivation layer on the anode, the Solid-Electrolyte Interphase (SEI), which is permeable to lithium ions but not to the electrolyte [7]. ...
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... water mist systems, various types of nozzles are used including single and multiple orifice nozzles which can produce different pattern based on the application. Figure 10 shows different types of nozzles and their spray patterns. ...
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... concentration of oxygen can be reduced by a combination of (a) depletion due to consumption by fire, (b) dilution due to displacement by the water vapour, and (c) dilution by combustion products [217]. The oxygen depletion, displacement, and flammable vapour dilution in a fire environment are depicted in Figure 11. ...
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... has been found that finer droplets can attenuate the thermal radiation at a lower concentration of water when compared to larger spray droplets [218]. The mechanism of radiation attenuation generated by a water-mist spray is shown in Figure 12. Water mist can vary the kinetics which can intensify or extinguish the flame [215]. ...
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Citations
... LIBs have emerged as the preferred electrochemical technology across various industries due to their remarkable energy, power density, lightweight design, and extended lifespan compared to traditional batteries. 1 The projected value of the worldwide electric vehicle market is expected to reach an impressive $93.1 billion by 2025. This reflects the widespread incorporation of LIBs in electrifying intelligent grids and road transport. ...
The rising energy density and widespread use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) pose a growing safety challenge, marked by the potential for fires and explosions. Given the unique combustion characteristics of LIBs, the need for efficient and prompt fire suppression is paramount. Here we explore the mechanisms and characteristics of LIBs fires, emphasizing the critical design principles for effective fire-extinguishing agents and evaluating various agents, including gaseous, dry powders, water-based, aerosol-based, and composite-based fire-extinguishing agents, elucidating their mechanisms and effectiveness in suppressing LIBs fires. Noteworthy agents such as C6F12O and water-based solutions are highlighted for their superior extinguishing and cooling capabilities. Water-based fire-extinguishing agents show promise, exhibiting superior cooling capacity and anti-flash properties. Despite certain limitations, the review underscores the necessity of identifying an ideal fire-extinguishing agent that is thermally conductive, electrically insulating, cost-effective, non-toxic, residue-free, and capable of absorbing toxic gases. We conclude by discussing perspectives and outlooks, emphasizing the synergy between the ideal agent and innovative extinguishing strategies to ensure the high safety standards of current and future LIB-based technologies.
... This type of energy storage system is widely used in electric vehicles [8]. According to several researchers [9][10][11][12][13][14], energy storage systems in electric vehicles pose safety challenges, especially in terms of the complex fire suppression of HTB fires. We hypothesized that if the fire blanket application proves effective individually on ICEV and HTB fires, it has the potential to be effective on battery electric vehicle (BEV) and PHEV (plug-in hybrid electric vehicle) fires as well. ...
Firefighting units in the Slovak Republic are well prepared for extinguishing fires of vehicles with internal combustion engines. However, the expansion of electromobility is also coming to Slovakia. It is essential to pay attention to this topic from the point of view of repression. This article deals with car fire blankets. The main objective is to verify and compare the effectiveness of extinguishing internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) fires and high-voltage traction battery (HTB) fires using car fire blankets. The effectiveness of a car fire blanket was determined based on the analysis of temperature drops during large-scale fire tests of ICEVs and HTBs. The temperature was recorded by four thermocouples. Two thermocouples were placed at 0.7 m from the ICEV and HTB; one thermocouple was placed in the interior of the ICEV and inside the HTB; one thermocouple was placed on the roof of the ICEV and the surface of the HTB. Subsequently, the results were compared based on temperature–time curves obtained from experimental measurements. Applying the car fire blanket to the ICEV fire caused a drop in temperature on all thermocouples. The most significant temperature drop was recorded in the interior of the vehicle. Specifically, the temperature dropped from 724 °C to 140 °C. However, the application of the car fire blanket had a different effect on the HTB fire. There was a minimal temperature change in the thermocouple on the right side at a 0.7 distance. The other thermocouples identified a slight increase in temperature.
... It is a mandatory project for regulatory inspections, an essential aspect of power battery system design, and a key evaluation criterion for assessing the quality of such designs. At present, the prevention and suppression technology of thermal diffusion in power batteries has become one of the most important development focuses in power battery system design, attracting the attention of domestic and foreign researchers 3,4 . ...
In order to address the issue of suppressing thermal runaway (TR) in power battery, a thermal generation model for power batteries was established and then modified based on experimental data. On the basis of simulation calculations, a scheme was designed to suppress thermal runaway of the battery module and battery pack, and samples were produced for testing. The results of the test and simulation calculations were very consistent, confirming the accuracy of the simulation calculation model. The results of thermal runaway test also demonstrate that the measures designed to suppress thermal runaway are effective and meet the design requirements.
... Water has been reported to have a cooling effect on the extinguishing of lithium-ion battery fires undergoing thermal runaway. Water is an excellent cooling agent due to its high heat capacity and latent vaporization, and it is able to mitigate the propagation of thermal runaway to surrounding batteries [10]. Water-based extinguishing agents such as F-500 and FireIce (water surfactants) have been studied for their effectiveness as extinguishants [11]. ...
A fire in a marine energy storage system (ESS) has a high risk because of the special situation of the sea compared with land systems. To mitigate serious damage in the event of a fire in marine ESSs, initial suppression of the fire is extremely important. In this study, a unit module-based fire extinguishing system was constructed for the initial suppression of an ESS fire, and a unit module fire suppression test was conducted. In addition, multiple modules were constructed to evaluate the impact of unit module fire suppression on adjacent modules. Novec 1230 and F-500, which are adaptable to ESS fire control, were used as extinguishing agents. The fire suppression test results showed that both extinguishing agents could effectively suppress the ESS fire in the initial stage using the proposed fire extinguishing system. The results of this study will contribute to the development of maritime safety protocols and practical measures for reinforcing preparation for ESS-related fire accidents.
... Te electrolyte facilitates the fow of lithium ions between the electrodes. Lithium ions travel from the anode and intercalate into the spaces between the layers of cathode crystals during the discharge reaction [72]. Lithium ions migrate from the positive side of the battery's cathode and insert into the anode during charging. ...
... Te anode, cathode, current collector, substrate, electrolyte, and a separator make up a thin-flm Li-ion battery. It is observed that, in contrast to traditional LiBs, the substrate plus current collector is required [72]. Te foundation layer in the deposition process is a thin ceramic layer known as a substrate. ...
Energy storage is a more sustainable choice to meet net-zero carbon foot print and decarbonization of the environment in the pursuit of an energy independent future, green energy transition, and uptake. The journey to reduced greenhouse gas emissions, increased grid stability and reliability, and improved green energy access and security are the result of innovation in energy storage systems. Renewable energy sources are fundamentally intermittent, which means they rely on the availability of natural resources like the sun and wind rather than continuously producing energy. Due to its ability to address the inherent intermittency of renewable energy sources, manage peak demand, enhance grid stability and reliability, and make it possible to integrate small-scale renewable energy systems into the grid, energy storage is essential for the continued development of renewable energy sources and the decentralization of energy generation. Accordingly, the development of an effective energy storage system has been prompted by the demand for unlimited supply of energy, primarily through harnessing of solar, chemical, and mechanical energy. Nonetheless, in order to achieve green energy transition and mitigate climate risks resulting from the use of fossil-based fuels, robust energy storage systems are necessary. Herein, the need for better, more effective energy storage devices such as batteries, supercapacitors, and bio-batteries is critically reviewed. Due to their low maintenance needs, supercapacitors are the devices of choice for energy storage in renewable energy producing facilities, most notably in harnessing wind energy. Moreover, supercapacitors possess robust charging and discharging cycles, high power density, low maintenance requirements, extended lifespan, and are environmentally friendly. On the other hand, combining aluminum with nonaqueous charge storage materials such as conductive polymers to make use of each material’s unique capabilities could be crucial for continued development of robust storage batteries. In general, energy density is a key component in battery development, and scientists are constantly developing new methods and technologies to make existing batteries more energy proficient and safe. This will make it possible to design energy storage devices that are more powerful and lighter for a range of applications. When there is an imbalance between supply and demand, energy storage systems (ESS) offer a way of increasing the effectiveness of electrical systems. They also play a central role in enhancing the reliability and excellence of electrical networks that can also be deployed in off-grid localities.
... Ghiji et al. [42] reviewed the fire extinguishing media recommended by various lithium-ion battery manufacturers for their products. Water is still considered to be an effective means of fighting an EV fire [31] as it can cool down the battery thereby adequately delaying or preventing thermal runaway. ...
Guidance issued by organisations such as fire and rescue services, insurers and governmental bodies across the UK for the fire safety design of covered car parks is changing in response to the projected rapid growth in electric vehicle (EV) use. This new guidance is impacting the provision of parking bays, particularly in residential and mixed-use buildings. This paper considers whether EVs in covered car parks pose a greater fire risk than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) using recent data on the ignition frequency and the burning characteristics of EVs. The recommended mitigating fire safety measures within the new guidance are assessed with a focus on detection, smoke ventilation, sprinkler systems and structural performance as these have the potential to have the greatest impact on a building fire safety design. The paper indicates that the recommendations may not align with available evidence which challenges a balanced approach to fire safety requirements to prevent over-specification that could affect the feasibility of building designs.
This paper summarises recent fire safety guidance in the UK on the use of electric vehicles (EVs) in covered car parks. Factors that contribute to the risk posed by EVs are investigated and practical design values for heat release and fire growth are suggested. Key recommended fire safety measures proposed in the guidance have been assessed against existing evidence. The findings are useful to stakeholders involved in the design of covered car parks to allow a balanced approach to their fire safety requirements.
... Given the difficulties in extinguishing fires in lithium ion cells enclosed in battery pack casings, and the harmful effect of high temperature on the vibration exciter in the testing laboratory, it is advisable not to isolate the battery pack in which thermal runaway has begun at the station but to quickly evacuate it from the vibration table (a headexpander or slip table) to, for example, a fire-extinguishing chamber filled with water, which according to the literature is the most efficient method of extinguishing a fire [21]. Such a system was prototyped by the ENVIBRA Research & Development Group as part of the project "High fire safety stand for vibration testing of electric vehicle battery modules and full battery packs"; a schematic of the system is shown in Figure 2. In addition, the chamber can also absorb toxic gases and store them in a sealed tank for later disposal. ...
The use of electric drives and energy storage devices in vehicles presents fresh challenges for system designers. Among these is addressing the susceptibility of battery packs to mechanical vibrations, necessitating vibration testing. In failure scenarios, like a battery fire, swiftly detaching the battery pack from the vibration platform is vital. It is also essential to ensure that the mounting system—fixture and fastener—effectively transfers vibration between the exciter and the battery pack. The article discusses the basic requirements for the fixture of specimens subjected to vibration testing and fastening it to a slip table of head expander, giving a better understanding of its role. It then presents the results of a theoretical analysis of the fixing forces and their laboratory testing using prototype customized fastening solutions with potential for use in vibration testing. The results of the conducted research and analyses demonstrate that non-standard mounting techniques have limited potential to replace screw mountings in vibration testing, particularly as fully universal techniques. However, the generated mounting forces, with potential resulting from the possibility of tailored implementation of the tested mounting techniques in the design of tables or head expanders, appropriately designed, justify further research work in this area.
... A schematic diagram of oxygen dilution, depletion, and flammable vapour dilution induced by the water-mist vaporisation in a fire environment[18]. ...
Citation: Moinuddin, K.; Mahmud, H.M.I.; Joseph, P.; Gamble, G.; Suendermann, B.; Wilkinson, C.; Bossard, J. Experimental and Numerical Studies on the Efficacy of Water Mist to Suppress Hydrocarbon Fires in Enclosures. Fire 2024, 7, 83. Abstract: Fire is one of the most undesirable events onboard a ship. The engine room is one of the most critical spaces in the ship in terms of fire protection, as it includes machinery, hydrocarbon fuel systems, and different electrical equipment. With the phasing out of Halon 1301 as a fire suppressant over recent decades, there has been an intensive effort to explore the efficacy of water-mist spray in mitigating fires within machinery spaces. This exploration entails a comprehensive investigation through experimental and simulation studies aimed at identifying suppression mechanisms and evaluating their effectiveness. While experimental setups typically encompass measurements of gas temperature, thermal radiation heat flux, oxygen concentration, and fire extinction time, limited attention has been paid to quantifying the heat release rate (HRR), a crucial indicator of fire magnitude. Furthermore, research into shielded fire scenarios remains sparse, despite their significance in maritime fire dynamics. Addressing shielded fires with water mist proves particularly challenging due to the potential obstruction impeding the direct interaction between the fire source and the water droplets. In the existing literature, most of the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling of fires and suppression was performed using a Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). Alternate studies were performed using FireFOAM. and very few employed FLUENT and other analogous software codes. In the majority of reported computational studies, the determination of HRR was typically relied upon for its calculation derived from the measured data of fuel mass loss rate. Moreover, certain studies were undertaken for numerical simulations without conducting thorough model validation, either by omitting validation altogether or solely validating against dry fire experiments (i.e., without water-mist suppression). This critical review of the literature has identified several notable research gaps in the context of extinguishing hydrocarbon fires utilising water-mist spray, warranting further investigations. Additionally, this review paper highlights recent advancements in both experimental and numerical investigations pertaining to the efficacy of water-mist fire-suppression systems in enclosed spaces regarding hydrocarbon fires.
... with upstream raw materials such as cathode electrode materials, anode electrode materials, electrolytes, separators, solid electrolytes, structural parts, and nickel hydroxide [3,9]. The midstream of the battery industry chain include battery cells, battery management systems, thermal management systems, fuel cell stacks, and system accessories [10,11]. ...
... Batteries themselves do contain several methods to improve their thermal stability. For example, each battery contains a BMS which controls and prevents conditions which could lead to failure, such as overcharging and overdischarging [19]. The BMS also operates the battery for the best application performance and a long life span. ...
... The BMS also operates the battery for the best application performance and a long life span. In addition to BMS, all batteries contain a thermal management system (TMS) which maintains the optimum operating temperature of between 20 and 40 °C and keeps temperature changes between the modules to a minimum [19]. As a whole, the battery compartment is also built with fire prevention in mind, being designed to survive structurally and containing a vent to let out any pressure buildup [19]. ...
... In addition to BMS, all batteries contain a thermal management system (TMS) which maintains the optimum operating temperature of between 20 and 40 °C and keeps temperature changes between the modules to a minimum [19]. As a whole, the battery compartment is also built with fire prevention in mind, being designed to survive structurally and containing a vent to let out any pressure buildup [19]. ...
The growth in the electric vehicle (EV) and the associated lithium-ion battery (LIB) market globally has been both exponential and inevitable. This is mainly due to the drive toward sustainability through the electrification of transport. This chapter briefly reviews and analyzes the value chain of LIBs, as well as the supply risks of the raw material provisions. It illustrates some of the global environmental and economic impacts of using materials such as cobalt, lithium, and nickel, in both their original and secondary usage and final disposal. To assist in the understanding of the supply and safety risks associated with the materials used in LIBs, this chapter explains in detail the various active cathode chemistries of the numerous LIBs currently available, including the specific battery contents, how the batteries are grouped into families, and the supply risks associated with the materials used. A detailed description of the three existing recycling processes and material yields from each recycling process is given. This is followed by a discussion on the challenges and opportunities that come with each of these recycling processes. There is an overview of battery recycling regulation in the three major markets, China, the EU, and the USA; and how they impact one another. Finally, we highlight the safety issues associated with the transportation, processing, and recycling of LIBs with a focus on the primary risks of LIB fires and how to prevent them. This chapter concludes by summarizing the key findings of this work.
