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2. The perfect symmetry megalith. Reliefs on a Gobekli Tepe rectangular megalith containing on both sides the same symbols in perfect symmetry and reverse roles. On the long side, the symmetric symbol " H " is carved, symmetrically flanked by two apses. On the frontal narrow side, the roles are reversed, as a set of five H's (two vertically and one horizontally positioned at the left hand side, two horizontally positioned at the right hand side margins) flank a set of male/female apses facing up. The pair of hands are symmetrically placed and so are their fingers. The exquisitely fine outline and shape of the hand's fingers and the rest of the symbols is unseen even in late Neolithic Art; noticeable is the undifferentiated length of the fingers on each hand, with the exception of the thumb. The degree of sophistication, symbolism, quality of work, symmetry and dexterity are extraordinary. The relief is carved on the stone's coating.
Source publication
![Figure 1.3. Gobekli Tepe structure C during excavation. Source: [15].](profile/Dimitrios-Dendrinos/publication/317433676/figure/fig3/AS:503348915654656@1497019141743/Gobekli-Tepe-structure-C-during-excavation-Source-15_Q320.jpg)
The paper documents the date for the initial construction phases of Layer III of structures D (middle 6th millennium BC) and structure C (end of 6th millennium BC - beginning of 5th millennium BC) at Gobekli Tepe. It is a sequel to the author's September 19, 2016 paper "Dating Gobekli Tepe". It uses comparative Architecture and Design analysis from...
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Citations
... Göbekli Tepe ponuđena je datacija od epipaleolitika, natufijena te ranog i srednjeg mezolitika, međutim Dendrinos (2016) pretpostavlja da je datacija ovog lokaliteta kasnija pri čemu srednji neolitik PPNB 1 lokaliteta Jerf el-Ahmar predstavlja terminus post quem za dataciju ovog lokaliteta (Dendrinos 2016). Nositelji natufijenske kulture započeli su domestikaciju žitarica sakupljanjem i probiranjem divljih vrsta (Rosenberg et al. 2021). ...
... Göbekli Tepe ponuđena je datacija od epipaleolitika, natufijena te ranog i srednjeg mezolitika, međutim Dendrinos (2016) pretpostavlja da je datacija ovog lokaliteta kasnija pri čemu srednji neolitik PPNB 1 lokaliteta Jerf el-Ahmar predstavlja terminus post quem za dataciju ovog lokaliteta (Dendrinos 2016). Nositelji natufijenske kulture započeli su domestikaciju žitarica sakupljanjem i probiranjem divljih vrsta (Rosenberg et al. 2021). ...
Lokaliteti Dužine kod Zadubravlja i Slavonski Brod – Galovo pripadaju ranoj fazi starčevačke kulture. Lomljena litika podvrgnuta je funkcionalnoj analizi s ciljem rekonstrukcije svakodnevnih djelatnosti ranoneolitičkog čovjeka koji obitava u Brodskoj Posavini. Analiza je provedena makroskopski pod lupama uvećanja do 20 puta, te mikroskopski pod metalurškim mikroskopom pod uvećanjima od 200 do 400 puta, a izdvojeni nalazi su snimljeni SEM-om pod povećanjem od 1 200 puta. Eksperimentom je pripremljena referentna zbirka na rožnjaku koji odgovara onome s navedenih arheoloških nalazišta. Prilikom istraživanja neolitičkog seta oruđa, uočena su oštećenja koja odgovaraju obradi biljaka visokog i niskog udjela silikatnih spojeva te obradi mesa i mesarenju – odnosno pripremi hrane i preradi biljaka, također su uočena oštećenja koja nastaju prilikom izrade kožnih predmeta te obradom suhih i tvrdih materijala poput drva, kosti i roga. Uočen je opći blagi sjaj koji je nedovoljno razvijen da bi ga se povezalo s tipom materijala na kojem je nastao. Prilikom definiranja sjaja srpa nastalog obradom biljaka visokog udjela silikatnih spojeva izdvojeno je pet faza.
Rasprostranjenost nalaza unutar zemunica ukazuje na tendenciju grupiranja poslova, a izdvajaju se mjesta obrade tvrdih i suhih materijala, kožarska radionica te prerade hrane životinjskog podrijetla.
Važna promjena je pojava sjaja srpa na sječivima koja se veže uz prikupljanje i uzgoj žitarica. Raspored oštećenja na sječivima upućuje na nazubljene kompozitne srpove grupe 1 – tip Riedschachen (Pétrequin et al. 2006). Relativno velik broj ovih sječiva te izgled srpa zajedno s drugim elementima neolitičkog paketa upućuju na zaključak da je poljoprivredna proizvodnja bila prisutna barem na lokalitetu Slavonski Brod – Galovo (Martić Štefan 2023).
The Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje, both from the early phase of the Starčevo culture, lie 15 kilometres apart (Minichreiter 1992, 29), and overlap chronologically in the period from 6 100 to 5 000 cal. BCE (Krajcar Bronić 2011, 183). We can infer from the geographic and chronological factors that there was interaction between the populations of the two sites. The Starčevo culture was the first Neolithic phenomenon in the Brodska Posavina region (Težak-Gregl 1998), such that we can assume that there were manifest lifestyle changes in relation to the Mesolithic period that preceded it. Functional analysis of knapped lithics was performed with the aim of reconstructing activities related to this location and period.
Functional analysis was first performed by Semenov in Russia in the 1930s, from where it spread to the rest of Europe and the United States of America in the 1960s (Anderson et al. 2005). Keeley and Newcomer (1977) contributed to the further development of the method, performing blind tests involving the examination of experimental material with the aim of determining the accuracy of the analysis. Keeley introduced the Keeley method, which focuses on the surfaces and edges of tools as indicative points for the formation of use-wear traces (Setzer 2004). In 1985 Vaughan published his Use-wear analysis of flaked stone tools, in which he presented a detailed reference collection. There has been a recent effort to introduce damage metrics (Setzer 2004), and functional analysis is increasingly frequent. AWRANA, an association of archaeologists active in functional analysis, was established in 2015.
The analysis of the function of knapped lithics from the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje was performed macroscopically under loupes with up to 20× magnification, and microscopically under magnifications ranging from 200× to 400× as required. The selected samples were imaged using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Recovered archaeological artefacts were examined macroscopically in the process of isolating finds for microscopic analysis. All use-wear traces were compared against samples in a reference collection created on chert consistent with the raw material of a part of the tools from the selected sites. The reference collection is comprised of samples used to work wood, fresh and naturally tanned hides, bone, and horn, and to cut cereal crops, herbaceous plants, and flesh, and to perform butchery work removing skin, flesh, and tendons from bone and cartilage. During use the materials were cut, sawn, scraped, scored, perforated and bored. Five discernible polish formation phases were identified in the process of analysing finds exhibiting sickle gloss
(Martić Štefan 2023), corresponding to the three phases described by Vaughan (1985). This finer discrimination was prompted by the observation in the course of experimentation, and on the archaeological material, that the smooth pitted polish phase could be further broken down into three sub-phases of development identifiable as sickle gloss.
Use-wear traces were identified at the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje, created in the process of working plants having both high and low silica content, and in meat processing and butchering. Also observed was damage formed in the process of fabricating items of leather, and in the working of dry and hard materials such as wood, bone and horn.
Artefacts exhibiting sickle gloss stand out. Their significance lies primarily in the connection to agriculture. Small blades are dominant at Starčevo culture sites in the broader area of distribution (Garašanin 1979: 123). The artefacts recovered at the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod include blades or fragments of blades with and without truncation, with a single trapeze constituting an exception (Martić Štefan 2023). Of the two artefacts recovered at the Dužine site in Zadubravlje only the size of the bladelet is not consistent with most of the above described finds, while the other find is a flake exhibiting use-wear traces on three edges (Martić Štefan 2023). The diagonal distribution of the polish, and fine chipping on the edge opposite the working edge, point to the conclusion that sickles from the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod were from among the Group 1 composite sickles of the Riedschachen type according to Pétrequin et al. (2006, 109–112). Similar blades were found at the early phase Starčevo culture sites Lepenski Vid and Padina (Petrović et al. 2022), and we see analogies at the Govrelo and Vrbjanska Čuka sites (Mazzucco et al. 2022, 6–9). The inhabitants of the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod, and likely those of the Dužine site in Zadubravlje, used composite sickles to cut silica-rich plants, which is also indicated by the find of cereals at the Dužine site in Zadubravlje (Minichreiter 1992c, 31, 51). As the Starčevo culture—at these sites and further abroad—corresponds in all other segments to Childe's (1958) Neolithic package it is very likely that sickle gloss on tools from these sites formed as the result of the cutting of domesticated cereal crops (Martić Štefan 2023). In terms of the chronology, this culture marks the first Neolithic phenomenon in the Brodsko Posavlje region, but corresponds with the Middle Neolithic in the broader sense, which further supports the presence of domesticated cereals in this area.
Other activities that can be posited on the basis of the use-wear traces identified on finds from structures at these two sites are leather working, food preparation, i.e., butchery, the cutting of plants, and the working of hard materials such as bone, horn, and wood. Hide processing is certainly most clearly evident in the context of work activity pit house SU 291/292 at the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod, as is food preparation in pit house dwelling 10 at the Dužine site in Zadubravlje. Use-wear traces on knapped lithics from these two structures corroborate hypotheses developed on the basis of finds of bone awls and pins in the case of pit house SU 291/292, or ceramic bowls in which bones were found in pit house dwelling 10. Based on the entirety of the finds, and the identification of use-wear traces on knapped lithics, the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje are typical Neolithic sites.
The recovered artefacts in both dwelling and work activity pit houses point to working spaces in which primarily dry and hard materials were processed. A number of structures are notable. Dwelling pit house SU 153/154 at the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod yielded the find of a flake with traces of leather working and two blades exhibiting sickle gloss. Butchery was likely performed in work activity pit house SU 205/206 at the same site, while work activity pit house SU 291/292 was a leather workshop. Notable at the Dužine site in Zadubravlje is pit house dwelling 10 where numerous activities were likely performed, such as food processing, including butchery. At the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod use-wear traces were identified on finds recovered from two grave pits, SU 2012/2013 and SU 2242/2243, where finds exhibiting sickle gloss are predominant. Although no features were identified at the Dužine site in Zadubravlje with human bone burials, the described pit 22 stands out among the structures at both sites. The mixed use-wear traces on finds recovered from pit 22 open more new questions than they provide answers for in relation to the function of this feature, located in the immediate vicinity of pit house dwelling 10.
The knapped lithic artefacts recovered at the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje exhibit use-wear traces similar to those seen on knapped lithics from the culturally corresponding Lepenski Vir and Padina sites (Petrović et al. 2022). Lithic tools from both sites were used to work hard and dry materials such as bone, horn, and wood. The working of stone of lesser hardness using knapped lithics was observed at great scale at the Lepenski Vir and Padina sites (Petrović et al. 2022), which was not seen at the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje. At these sites lithic tools were used for butchering, to work animal hides, and—at some of the sites—possibly for fibre processing (Petrović et al. 2022). Tools were used to cut plants having both high and low silica content;
the distribution of sickle gloss on blades recovered at the Lepenski Vir and Padina sites, however, is not consistent with the distribution of sickle gloss at the sites in the Brodsko Posavlje region (Petrović et al. 2022). The commonalities of everyday activities shared by these sites are significant given that the results of the functional analysis shows a connection that places them at the dawn of the Neolithisation of these areas.
Also notable from the sphere of the Starčevo culture are blades exhibiting sickle gloss from the Govrelo and Vrbjanska Čuka Anzabegovo-Vršnik culture sites in North Macedonia (Mazzucco et al. 2022, 6–9), which are consistent with blades exhibiting sickle gloss from the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod. Sickle gloss observed on the blades found at these sites is distributed diagonally across the body of the sickle, indicative of a more or less curved composite sickle with diagonally set teeth, which is consistent with Group 1 composite sickles of the Riedschachen type according to Pétrequin et al. (2006). Similar sickles have been identified at sites in Bulgaria, for example the Tell Karanovo site (Gurova & Bonsall 2014), which corresponds with the Čavdar-Kremikovci-Karanovo culture group of the Starčevo cultural complex (Težak-Gregl 1998, 63). Developing a map of the distribution of the various sickle types in the broader European space will allow us to follow the influences at play in the adoption and early development of agriculture (Ibáñez et al. 2005). The results of the functional analysis show that the early Starčevo culture population at the investigated sites took part in the initial stages of the Neolithic revolution in the area of their distribution. The use-wear traces identified on finds from the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod and the Dužine site in Zadubravlje are largely consistent with use-wear traces seen at other sites of the Starčevo cultural sphere. This is evident both from the cited examples—which point to commonalities in the types of activities performed within settlements, and from the typology of sickles that appear with the development of agriculture within this cultural complex. From what we currently know the everyday activities at the Dužine site in Zadubravlje and the Galovo site in Slavonski Brod were consistent with the activities that took place at other early Neolithic sites in the broader area.
... The word 'megalith' derived from the combination of two ancient Greek words megas, which means great or large and lithos, means stone. This culture of megalith building can be found all around the world; where the oldest known evidence can be found in Gobekli Tepe, Turkey, which timeline dated as early as up to the Late Mesolithic age (Dendrinos, 2016). The reasons why humans created these stone structures vary in accordance with cultural practices across the globe. ...
Visual research that is prevalent in the ethnography study is essentially the combination of arts-based and arts-informed methods in the visual art field. However, up to the present time, there is no standard way on how to conduct a visual research. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model (ELM) on the other hand is a systematic model that derived from the education discipline which focuses on learning through experience. Kolb’s ELM has proven to be effective that it has been adopted by many researchers in various fields due to its versatility. Therefore this study seeks to examine the potential of applying Kolb’s ELM into visual research through three selected batuh narit (rock carvings) of Kelabit Highlands as case studies. The visual research was separated into four phases according to Kolb’s ELM which are concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Several methods include sensory ethnography, enhanced blended observational method and visual analysis were also used in this study. Ultimately, a Visual Research Model was generated through the application of Kolb’s ELM into the visual research case studies. Researcher sees the potential of Visual Research Model to be developed further by conducting more studies with similar applications of the Visual Research Model into other visual researches in order to improve the new existing model.
Keywords: Visual research, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model (ELM), batuh narit.
... İnsanlığın ilk ibadet tapınağı inşa ettiği bu destinasyon, turizm ve inanç ilişkisinin en cezp edici noktası olarak görülen mekanların başında gelmektedir. Göbeklitepe'nin bugüne kadar bilinen altı yapısı, A, B, C, D, E ve F Rodney Hale'in ölçülmemiş şematik kat planına göre sütunlar ve ortostatların sayıları ile sağlanan diyagram bulunmaktadır (Dendrinos, 2016). ...
... A central feature of this paper, the role of shadows in Archeology and Neolithic Architecture, has been first recognized and elaborated by the author in two previous papers. One was on Carnac's Le Grand Menec monument, cited in [1]; the second was on Gobekli Tepe's structures C and D (Layer III) cited in [2]. These two papers constituted a dual effort: first, to analyze the role that shadows apparently played in the design of Neolithic monuments and demonstrate that shadows of standing stones in specific and structures in general were an integral part of the monuments' architectonic design; and second, to bring the subject to the forefront of archeological research and make it a branch of the studies in Neolithic Architecture. ...
... The reader is directed to the references in [5] for more information on certain isolated efforts to deal with shadows in monumental Architecture. In so far as how the expected shadows cast by monoliths have directly affected the architectural design of the monuments themselves during the Neolithic (and beyond, down to the design of monuments in Classical Greece) the reader is referred to the papers in [1] and [2] written by this author. It is an extension of these two specific papers that this paper is written. ...
... In two specific cases examined in some detail by this author, it was found that the positioning of monoliths (orthostats and pillars in the case of Gobekli Tepe's structures, see [2], and strings of free standing stones in the case of Carnac' Le Menec and its allied monuments, see [1]) the architect wanted to convey information to the relevant public at the time, i.e., pass on cultural messages associated with the various social functions performed by these monuments. Moreover, due to these shadows, the architect designed the monument to accommodate the shadows' movements, their daily as well as the annual dynamics. ...
The paper presents both an introduction to the theory of shadows and their mathematics, with a concentration in the cast-off shadows from megalithic Neolithic monuments. It is addressing lengths of shadows' dynamics above the Tropic of Cancer at the Northern Hemisphere. A companion paper presents the length of shadows' dynamics at and below the Tropic of Cancer here: https://www.academia.edu/32426535/The_Dynamics_of_Shadows_at_and_below_the_Tropic_of_Cancer_in_the_Northern_Hemisphere_update_1
... A central feature of this paper, the role of shadows in Archeology and Neolithic Architecture, has been first recognized and elaborated by the author in two previous papers. One was on Carnac's Le Grand Menec monument, cited in [1]; the second was on Gobekli Tepe's structures C and D (Layer III) cited in [2]. These two papers constituted a dual effort: first, to analyze the role that shadows apparently played in the design of Neolithic monuments and demonstrate that shadows of standing stones in specific and structures in general were an integral part of the monuments' architectonic design; and second, to bring the subject to the forefront of archeological research and make it a branch of the studies in Neolithic Architecture. ...
... The reader is directed to the references in [5] for more information on certain isolated efforts to deal with shadows in monumental Architecture. In so far as how the expected shadows cast by monoliths have directly affected the architectural design of the monuments themselves during the Neolithic (and beyond, down to the design of monuments in Classical Greece) the reader is referred to the papers in [1] and [2] written by this author. It is an extension of these two specific papers that this paper is written. ...
... In two specific cases examined in some detail by this author, it was found that the positioning of monoliths (orthostats and pillars in the case of Gobekli Tepe's structures, see [2], and strings of free standing stones in the case of Carnac' Le Menec and its allied monuments, see [1]) the architect wanted to convey information to the relevant public at the time, i.e., pass on cultural messages associated with the various social functions performed by these monuments. Moreover, due to these shadows, the architect designed the monument to accommodate the shadows' movements, their daily as well as the annual dynamics. ...
The paper presents both an introduction to the theory of shadows and their mathematics, with a concentration in the cast-off shadows from megalithic Neolithic monuments. It is addressing lengths of shadows' dynamics above the Tropic of Cancer at the Northern Hemisphere. A companion paper presents the length of shadows' dynamics at and below the Tropic of Cancer here: https://www.academia.edu/32426535/The_Dynamics_of_Shadows_at_and_below_the_Tropic_of_Cancer_in_the_Northern_Hemisphere
... Put differently, whether an "egg" was indeed the shape these Neolithic architects intended to implant there, versus some other possibly simpler form; or whether the process Thom suggested in the 1970s was actually the process indeed that the original architect of the assumed cromlech followed in drawing an egg, is a set of questions we address here head on. Moreover, in combination with the paper on Gobekli Tepe, [74], we ask the question: where did this shape come from? Did it originate there at Carnac, or did it migrate from the Fertile Crescent? ...
... Approximate rectangles we encounter in the case of the various layers at Catalhoyuk, see [82], and the original late 6 th millennium BC settlement at Uruk, as well as in the cases of Cayonu and Nevali Cori both human settlements dated late PPNB middle Mesolithic. They are discussed more extensively in [74]. For placing a terminus post quem on the early Phase of Layer III and in structures C and D of Gobekli Tepe, see also [26]. ...
... We encounter well defined rectangles on the pillars and orthostats of all known enclosures at Gobekli Tepe. That feature is a key one in placing a date on this Fertile Crescent ceremonial site and sanctuary of late Mesolithic early Neolithic period, a point elaborated in [74]. Besides the rectangle based difference between Carnac's Le Menec and Gobekli Tepe, there is strong point of similarity: the "egg" shape stone enclosure at the western end of Le Menec, and the "egg" shape stone enclosure of almost all structures unearthed thus far at the Gobekli Tepe site, including structures C and D, the foci of the paper in [74]. ...
The paper analyzes the monument of Le Menec at Carnac, in Brittany, France. It advances a number of propositions, key among them being that the strings of stones at Le Menec are not linear parallel alignments but converging arcs. These stones and strings performed a variety of cultural functions. Arcs acted as a Theme Park for celestial objects and their orbits. It is suggested that Le Grand Menec, Kermario, Kerlescan, and Le Petit Menec represented the four seasons. The paper also suggests that the stones' shadows were used as part of sundials. Each stone was used as a computing device, and collectively they constituted a proto Neolithic supercomputer.
The paper offers a brief recap of the literature on the “Tazza Farnese” artifact. It also supplies some new insights on the shallow phiale’s description, iconography, and its possible travels over the past 23 centuries or so. Use is made of methods drawn from the author’s work towards deriving a “New Epistemology”. Foundations of this Epistemological approach include methods such as Nonlinear Dynamics, Fuzzy Sets Theory, Optimization Theory, Quantum Mechanics, and Modern Metrology. These methods provide means to understand how scholars observe, address and analyze, in a speculative manner, past events and objects.
The paper elaborates on points raised on a previous paper by this author titled “Carbon-14 evidence and Neolithic sites: dating the Architectures of Boncuklu Tarla and Gobekli Tepe”. It also discusses and analyzes some more recent carbon-14 related evidence from Gobekli Tepe published by a team of archeologists associated with the excavation there.
This is an update of the paper under the same title by the author. It contains editorial corrections and the formal permission by the University of Cincinnati Dept. of Classics to use the image of the ring.
The paper is an updated version of the December 2, 2017 paper under an identical title by this author. It incorporates in it exact measurements of the ring (received by the author on December 3, 2017). The paper strengthens and expands on the findings of the previous paper, as well as it amends and extends the prior analysis. Editorial corrections are also carried out.
