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The original distribution of Cacajao calvus ucayalii (Hershkovitz, 1987), the distribution in 1986 (Aquino, 1988) and the newly discovered population. Map adapted from Aquino (1988).
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... In the first place, seasonal variations in hydrology, which are particularly common in the floodplains of the Amazon basin linked to rain patterns 50 , have been proposed to affect gene flow by intensifying and diminishing the effect of rivers as effective barriers 23,[35][36][37][38] . River dynamics have been proposed to particularly affect population connectivity in systems found in the western part of the Amazon 14,23,38 , where lowlands are of a much younger age than those in the east, thus shaping a less stable geological topography 35,37,51 . ...
... In the first place, seasonal variations in hydrology, which are particularly common in the floodplains of the Amazon basin linked to rain patterns 50 , have been proposed to affect gene flow by intensifying and diminishing the effect of rivers as effective barriers 23,[35][36][37][38] . River dynamics have been proposed to particularly affect population connectivity in systems found in the western part of the Amazon 14,23,38 , where lowlands are of a much younger age than those in the east, thus shaping a less stable geological topography 35,37,51 . ...
Uakari monkeys (genus Cacajao ) are endemic to the Amazon rainforest. These have been divided into two main groups: bald and black, mainly based on phenotypic and ecological differences, for which eight taxonomic species have been described. We present 48 geo-localized high coverage whole genomes from uakaris in wild populations across their habitat range. The resolution in terms of sequencing depth provided by this dataset has allowed us to closely explore the structure and evolutionary past of these populations inhabiting the highly dynamic and diverse Amazon rainforest, unavailable until now. Also, we have refined previous phylogenetic estimates by presenting the first whole genome phylogenies available for Cacajao , which were built based on 1Mb and 250kb windows respectively. In this context, bald and black uakaris showed differing genetic diversity ranges, group-specific non-synonymous variation enriched for pathogen-related pathways, and strong population structure, both among and within species. Despite the latter, connectivity was common inside each group whilst strongly shaped by allopatric barriers. Strikingly, even though their habitat ranges partially overlap, no migration was detected between these two groups. Lastly, demographic inference was performed employing a maximum likelihood approach, with which we i) obtained overall higher effective population size estimates for bald extant and ancestral populations than black in agreement with genetic diversity patterns, and ii) found the evolutionary divergence times in the genus were as old as one million years, depicting a quite recent evolutionary history. With this work we increased the representation of wild non-human primates in genomic studies, particularly that of platyrrhine lineages such as Cacajao .
... This subspecies is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, with populations that declined at least 30% over the past 30 years. This decline was primarily due to hunting and habitat loss, which reduced red uakaris to very patchily distributed populations (Bowler et al. 2009;Veiga et al. 2008). ...
... Despite concerns about the impact of land-use change and hunting on uakari populations due the forest concessions, subsequent surveys found no evidence of declining primate populations on the Yavari Mirin (Mayor et al. 2015). However, the decline in populations of this species in other areas with logging operations urged precautionary measures to maintain their populations (Bowler et al. 2009). Thus, engagement programs were prescribed by our research group to better understand and change perceptions and attitudes which could threaten local populations of primates. ...
... However, the red uakari is a vul-nerable species because their populations are highly fragmented and dispersed, and their reproduction is very slow (Mayor et al. 2017). In addition, the species has been extirpated from several other remote areas (Bowler et al. 2009), especially where logging operations have occurred. Therefore, this educational program aimed to encourage the residents to maintain Bernárdez-Rodriguez et al. 2021. ...
Many wildlife conservation projects aim to change the perceptions of local communities through conservation education programs. However, few assess whether and how these programs effectively promote shifts in community perceptions and attitudes towards wildlife conservation. We designed an educational program focused on communicating to local inhabitants from a remote community in the Peruvian Amazon that their territories are considered globally important for the red uakari (Cacajao calvus), and inspire them to become protectors and defenders of this endangered species. We aimed to evaluate changes in perceptions and attitudes towards the red uakari monkey after a conservation education workshop. We found that positive attitudes and perceptions towards the red uakari (such as uakari hunting suspension and perception of uakari importance) increased immediately after and in the short-term (two years) following the workshop but diminished in the medium-term (three years). However, attitudes remained better than before the workshop. Our results indicate that conservation education programs are useful in encouraging positive attitudes towards wildlife conservation in the short term, but ongoing environmental education activities may be necessary to have lasting positive effects.
... To ensure rapid desiccation, we preserved one small piece of each sample (0.2 -0.5 g) on filter paper in 30 ml container 80% full of dry silica gel. A further two samples were available from the Yanayacu-Pucate River population (4856 0 S, 74808 0 W), which is separated from the Yavari population by a wide river barrier [42]. ...
Colour vision is highly variable in New World monkeys (NWMs). Evidence for the adaptive basis of colour vision in this group has largely centred on environmental features such as foraging benefits for differently coloured foods or predator detection, whereas selection on colour vision for sociosexual communication is an alternative hypothesis that has received little attention. The colour vision of uakaris (Cacajao) is of particular interest because these monkeys have the most dramatic red facial skin of any primate, as well as a unique fission/fusion social system and a specialist diet of seeds. Here, we investigate colour vision in a wild population of the bald uakari, C. calvus, by genotyping the X-linked opsin locus. We document the presence of a polymorphic colour vision system with an unprecedented number of functional alleles (six), including a novel allele with a predicted maximum spectral sensitivity of 555 nm. This supports the presence of strong balancing selection on different alleles at this locus. We consider different hypotheses to explain this selection. One possibility is that trichromacy functions in sexual selection, enabling females to choose high-quality males on the basis of red facial coloration. In support of this, there is some evidence that health affects facial coloration in uakaris, as well as a high prevalence of blood-borne parasitism in wild uakari populations. Alternatively, the low proportion of heterozygous female trichromats in the population may indicate selection on different dichromatic phenotypes, which might be related to cryptic food coloration. We have uncovered unexpected diversity in the last major lineage of NWMs to be assayed for colour vision, which will provide an interesting system to dissect adaptation of polymorphic trichromacy.
... The irregular distribution of this monkey means we cannot make inferences based on the densities or abundance calculated from the surveys; however, because hunters do not appear to be harvesting this species during timber operations, it is probable that populations have not been affected. Nevertheless, sharp declines in the populations of this species in other areas (Bowler et al. 2009) where logging operations have occurred urges caution in predicting population trends for this species. ...
We examined the effects of selective timber logging carried out by local indigenous people in remote areas within indigenous territories on the mammal populations of the Yavari-Mirin River basin on the Peru-Brazil border. Recent findings show that habitat change in the study area is minimal, and any effect of logging activities on large mammal populations is highly likely to be the result of hunting associated with logging operations. We used hunting registers to estimate the monthly and yearly biomass
extracted during timber operations and to calculate the catch per unit effort (CPUE) in subsistence hunting in the community of Esperanza 2 to 5 years before logging activities started and 4 to 7 years after logging began. We also used line transects and the distance method to estimate animal densities before and after logging. We found that 1389 hunted animals and 27,459 kg of mammal biomass were extracted per year from logging concessions. CPUE for ungulates declined; however, it increased for other mammal orders, such
as rodents and primates, indicating a shift to alternative prey items. Although collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) and tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) may also have declined in numbers, this shift may have been caused by a possibly natural population crash in white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) that coincided with the logging periods. We found no evidence that populations of primates were reduced by the logging activities. Because primates are sensitive to hunting, and their populations were of principal concern as logging commenced, this indicates that these forests remain of high conservation value. The unusual socioeconomic situation of these remote territories may mean that they are compatible with wildlife conservation in the Yavari-Mirin basin.
... However, this high biodiversity, and the remoteness of the many parts of the Amazon, mean that the biology and geographical distributions of many potential hosts are poorly known. One such host is the Peruvian red uakari monkey (Cacajao calvus ucayalii), a subspecies endemic to the Peruvian Amazon that occurs in patchy and sometimes isolated populations in northeastern Peru (Bowler et al. 2009). The species is included in Appendix II of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and is described as Vulnerable by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), mainly due to habitat loss and hunting (Peres, 2001;Veiga & Bowler, 2013). ...
Cacajao calvus ucayalii
(Thomas, 1928) (Primates: Pitheciidae), a subspecies endemic to the Peruvian Amazon, occurs in patchy and sometimes isolated populations in north-eastern Peru and is in a vulnerable situation, mainly due to habitat loss and hunting. This rareness and remote distribution means that, until now, parasitical studies have been limited. Based on optical and scanning electron microscopy of specimens of both sexes, we report two new species of
Trypanoxyuris
pinworms occurring in the large intestine of the Peruvian red uakari, namely
Trypanoxyuris (Trypanoxyuris) cacajao
and
Trypanoxyuris (Trypanoxyuris) ucayalii
. Both species showed a distinct morphology of the lips and cephalic structure. Sexual dimorphism in the lateral alae was observed in both male and the female worms, with ventral ornamentation being shown in the oesophageal teeth. The finding of these new pinworm species highlights the possibility of discovering other species.
... Where it does occur, it is threatened by hunting and habitat change [18] and is in decline in most areas [12,42]. For this reason, uakaris are the focus of conservation projects in northeastern Peru [17,18] Understanding population change in any species requires life-history parameters, which for most neotropical primates are poorly understood. For Cacajao, the reproductive biology is virtually unknown; ecological studies on the genus have only yielded cursory information on demographic variables such as birthrates and breeding seasonality [3-5, 7-10, 13, 14, 23]. ...
Background
Birthrates are key parameters for population models and hunting sustainability analyses frequently used in conservation, but for many rare species, these data do not exist. We examine the reproductive organs of endangered red uakari monkeys to calculate birthrates in the wild.Methods
We collected reproductive organs from wild uakari monkeys hunted for subsistence by indigenous hunters and examined them for embryos or fetuses. We extrapolated birth dates to test for breeding seasonality and calculated birthrates.ResultsBreeding was seasonal, and birthrates were low relative to other neotropical primates. We recorded unexpectedly high numbers of reproductively inactive females compared to other neotropical monkeys.Conclusions
Reproductive inactivity could be due to delayed reproduction or long periods of lactation. Resource availability may also play a role. Slow reproduction and low birthrates in uakaris, relative other primates, could explain why uakaris have a patchy distribution and appear vulnerable to disturbance.
... be differences in the frequency that pitheciid species engage in terrestrial movement [Barnett et al., 2012], a landscape of small, isolated forest fragments may have serious negative implications for species' movement between habitat fragments. Although there have not been any published studies of Cacajao spp. in human-modified habitat fragments, some species have likely experienced local extinction or severe population declines as a result of hunting and logging [Barnett, 2005;Bowler et al., 2009], but the extent to which hunting has impacted populations is not fully known [Barnett, 2005;Barnett et al., 2013]. Furthermore, there is not a full understanding of how human-modified landscapes have impacted Cacajao, as Peres [2001] reported that Cacajao went locally extinct in the extension of the highway BR-364 in Acre, Brazil. ...
... Unfortunately, current patterns of deforestation may result in additional opportunities to study Cacajao in habitat fragments in the future. As hunting of Cacajao occurs [Bowler et al., 2009;Peres, 2001], it may be that multiple factors (e.g. habitat loss, hunting, restricted ranges) drive increased pressure on Cacajao in the future [Ferrari et al., 2013c,d]. ...
... Through this current study, two sites ( Fig. 1, sites 2 and 27) where pitheciids have been noted in habitat fragments (i.e., Callicebus ornatus [Wagner et al., 2009]; Callicebus nigrifrons [Santana et al., 2008]) were not included within the IUCN geographic ranges. Geographic range extensions have also been reported for Cacajao in continuous forest [Bowler et al., 2009;Cardoso et al., 2014;Vermeer et al., 2013]. As additional studies are conducted, the geographic ranges of each species will need to be verified. ...
Pitheciids (Cacajao, Callicebus, Chiropotes, and Pithecia) have experienced habitat loss and fragmentation across their geographic range in South America. Some populations living in habitat fragments live in smaller groups, travel shorter distances, and consume items that are not regularly found in the diets of populations living in continuous habitat; however, these patterns are not consistent across species. I used the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species to delineate the geographic range and conservation status of 43 pitheciid species. I calculated the amount of modified land cover within the range of each species, as well as the extent to which the remaining habitat exists in small fragments and the amount of forest lost from 2000 to 2012. Mean forest fragment size ranged from 12 to 12,027 ha, and mean forest loss from 2000 to 2012 ranged from 10.7% for Chiropotes to 0.9% for Pithecia. Critically Endangered and Endangered species represented 20.9% of the pitheciid species, and 46.5% of these species had population trends documented as decreasing. Total modified land cover was greatest for Callicebus species (18.0% of geographic range), followed by Chiropotes (13.8%), Pithecia (4.4%), and Cacajao (1.1%). Species of greater conservation concern had smaller geographic ranges, and a greater percentage of their range consisting of modified land cover than species of lower conservation concern. Species of greater conservation concern also had a greater percentage of forest lost from 2000 to 2012 and a smaller percentage of the remaining forest being protected. Most studies of pitheciids in fragments have concentrated on census data; the behavior of pitheciids in fragments has been examined for only 9 of the 43 species. Increased data on the responses of pitheciid species to forest loss and fragmentation are necessary in order to address pitheciid conservation, especially in areas undergoing severe habitat loss. Am. J. Primatol. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... The Peruvian red uakari monkey (Cacajao calvus ucayalii), a subspecies of bald uakari, is endemic to Peru. It is present between the Yavari and Ucayali Rivers, and in very isolated populations in northern Peru outside this range [4]. It is one of the least studied species of Neotropical primates [1,3,6,7], and is listed in Appendix II of CITES [12] and as Vulnerable by the IUCN [30]. ...
... It is one of the least studied species of Neotropical primates [1,3,6,7], and is listed in Appendix II of CITES [12] and as Vulnerable by the IUCN [30]. Uakari populations are declining due to hunting and habitat loss [2,5,8], leading to increasing fragmentation of populations [4]. ...
Parasites are important in the management of the health of primate populations. We examined 36 fecal samples from Peruvian red uakari monkeys (Cacajao calvus ucayalii) collected from wild animals in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. Samples were positive for helminth infection. Nematodes egg: Strongyloididae, Trypanoxyuris sp., Spirurid, and a cestode egg were identified.
... Its distribution was generally thought to range from the east bank of the Ucayali River eastwards to the Yavarí River and from the Amazonas River in the north to the Urubamba River in the south (Aquino and Encarnación, 1994). Recently, Bowler et al. (2009) reported on the presence of the species on the west bank of the Ucayali River, in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (see Fig. 3), demonstrating that major rivers are not absolute geographical barriers for uakari dispersal. However, the extent of this population is unclear and is assumed to be small (Bowler et al., 2009). ...
... Recently, Bowler et al. (2009) reported on the presence of the species on the west bank of the Ucayali River, in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (see Fig. 3), demonstrating that major rivers are not absolute geographical barriers for uakari dispersal. However, the extent of this population is unclear and is assumed to be small (Bowler et al., 2009). Peruvian red uakaris are often thought to be flooded-forest specialists (Kinzey, 1997), but recent work by Heymann and Aquino (2010) showed that most records of this subspecies come from terra firme forest. ...
... The population is separated from the known population in the east by more than 365 kilometres and by the wide and fast flowing Huallaga River. Although uakaris have recently shown to exist west of the Ucayali River (Bowler et al., 2009), the western extent of this population is thought to be limited as the species has never been observed in the western part of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (personal communication with guides living on the western border of the reserve to Jan Vermeer). The large gap between the populations is difficult to explain. ...
We studied a zone of sympatry between Alouatta seniculus and Alouatta palliata on the left bank of the Atrato River (Chocó).
We located 110 groups of Alouatta, consisting of 81 groups of A. palliata and 29 groups of A. seniculus, recorded between
12 – 300 m a.s.l. Alouatta seniculus was associated principally with arracachal and panganal vegetation of alluvial soils alongside
the Atrato River below 50 m altitude, and A. palliata was associated with upland vegetation of gallery forest, primary
forest and secondary forest (20-300 m a.s.l.). The average number of animals per group of A. seniculus was 5.59 (range
2-7 individuals) while the average for A. palliata was 6.76 (range 2-18 individuals). No phenotypic evidence of hybridization
was detected in contrast to other studies of hybridization of Alouatta. The condition of many of the forests in this study
suggests the necessity of a conservation program in order to protect this unique zone of sympatry between the two species.
... Its distribution was generally thought to range from the east bank of the Ucayali River eastwards to the Yavarí River and from the Amazonas River in the north to the Urubamba River in the south (Aquino and Encarnación, 1994). Recently, Bowler et al. (2009) reported on the presence of the species on the west bank of the Ucayali River, in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (see Fig. 3), demonstrating that major rivers are not absolute geographical barriers for uakari dispersal. However, the extent of this population is unclear and is assumed to be small (Bowler et al., 2009). ...
... Recently, Bowler et al. (2009) reported on the presence of the species on the west bank of the Ucayali River, in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (see Fig. 3), demonstrating that major rivers are not absolute geographical barriers for uakari dispersal. However, the extent of this population is unclear and is assumed to be small (Bowler et al., 2009). Peruvian red uakaris are often thought to be flooded-forest specialists (Kinzey, 1997), but recent work by Heymann and Aquino (2010) showed that most records of this subspecies come from terra firme forest. ...
... The population is separated from the known population in the east by more than 365 kilometres and by the wide and fast flowing Huallaga River. Although uakaris have recently shown to exist west of the Ucayali River (Bowler et al., 2009), the western extent of this population is thought to be limited as the species has never been observed in the western part of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (personal communication with guides living on the western border of the reserve to Jan Vermeer). The large gap between the populations is difficult to explain. ...
Here we report on the discovery of a new population of red uakaris in the mountains of northern San Martin, north-eastern Peru. This population is isolated from the other known uakari populations in the eastern lowlands, which raises questions concerning their taxonomic status and biogeographical history. This follows a recent range extension of this taxon west of the Ucayali River. Previously, the Peruvian red uakari (Cacajao calvus ucayalii) was only known in Peru from the lowlands between the Amazon, Ucayali and Yavarí Rivers.
