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The map of X Her at 70 µm displayed on a logarithmic intensity scale. North is to the top, east to the left. To the south east of X Her are a pair of galaxies (UGC10156a and b).
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MESS (Mass-loss of Evolved StarS) is a Guaranteed Time Key Program that uses the PACS and SPIRE instruments on board the Herschel Space Observatory to observe a representative sample of evolved stars, that include asymptotic giant branch (AGB) and post-AGB stars, planetary nebulae and red supergiants, as well as luminous blue variables, Wolf-Rayet...
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Citations
... Sources marked with * are also in the DEATHSTAR sample. (Groenewegen et al. 2011 ), confirming cold dust is commonplace. Ho we ver, sensiti vity to the coldest dust requires (sub-)mm observations. ...
The Nearby Evolved Stars Survey (NESS) is a volume-complete sample of ∼850 Galactic evolved stars within 3 kpc at (sub-)mm wavelengths, observed in the CO J = (2–1) and (3–2) rotational lines, and the sub-mm continuum, using the James Clark Maxwell Telescope and Atacama Pathfinder Experiment. NESS consists of five tiers, based on distances and dust-production rate (DPR). We define a new metric for estimating the distances to evolved stars and compare its results to Gaia EDR3. Replicating other studies, the most-evolved, highly enshrouded objects in the Galactic Plane dominate the dust returned by our sources, and we initially estimate a total DPR of 4.7 × 10−5 M⊙ yr−1 from our sample. Our sub-mm fluxes are systematically higher and spectral indices are typically shallower than dust models typically predict. The 450/850 μm spectral indices are consistent with the blackbody Rayleigh–Jeans regime, suggesting a large fraction of evolved stars have unexpectedly large envelopes of cold dust.
... van der Veen et al. 1995;Dehaes et al. 2007;Ladjal et al. 2010;Dharmawardena et al. 2018). Cox et al. (2012) notably found extended far-infrared (FIR) emission in 49 out of 78 evolved stars 14 , mostly drawn from the Mass-loss of Evolved StarS (MESS) Herschel Guaranteed Time Key Programme (Groenewegen et al. 2011), confirming cold dust is commmonplace. ...
The Nearby Evolved Stars Survey (NESS) is a volume-complete sample of $\sim$850 Galactic evolved stars within 3\,kpc at (sub-)mm wavelengths, observed in the CO $J = $ (2$-$1) and (3$-$2) rotational lines, and the sub-mm continuum, using the James Clark Maxwell Telescope and Atacama Pathfinder Experiment. NESS consists of five tiers, based on distances and dust-production rate (DPR). We define a new metric for estimating the distances to evolved stars and compare its results to \emph{Gaia} EDR3. Replicating other studies, the most-evolved, highly enshrouded objects in the Galactic Plane dominate the dust returned by our sources, and we initially estimate a total DPR of $4.7\times 10^{-5}$ M$_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$ from our sample. Our sub-mm fluxes are systematically higher and spectral indices are typically shallower than dust models typically predict. The 450/850 $\mu$m spectral indices are consistent with the blackbody Rayleigh--Jeans regime, suggesting a large fraction of evolved stars have unexpectedly large envelopes of cold dust.
... We combine the SCUBA-2 observations with Herschel/PACS 70 and 160 μm imaging observations of U Ant as part of our analysis (FWHMs of 5.46 × 5.76 and 10.65 × 12.13, respectively). These data are a part of the Mass-loss of Evolved StarS (MESS) programme (Groenewegen et al. 2011) and are publicly available for download via the Herschel Science Archive. 2 Here, we use the Level 2.5 reduced products, the highest available pipelinereduced data products calibrated using PACS calibration version PACS CAL 77 0. ...
We present the highest resolution single-dish submillimetre observations of the detached shell source U Antliae to date. The observations were obtained at $450$ and $850\,{\mu}{\rm m}$ with SCUBA-2 instrument on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope as part of the Nearby Evolved Stars Survey. The emission at $850\,{\mu}{\rm m}$ peaks at 40 arcsec with hints of a second peak seen at ∼20 arcsec. The emission can be traced out to a radius of 56 arcsec at a 3σ level. The outer peak observed at $850\,{\mu}{\rm m}$ aligns well with the peak observed at Herschel/PACS wavelengths. With the help of spectral energy distribution fitting and radiative transfer calculations of multiple-shell models for the circumstellar envelope, we explore the various shell structures and the variation of grain sizes along the in the circumstellar envelope. We determine a total shell dust mass of (2.0 ± 0.3) × 10−5 M⊙ and established that the thermal pulse that gave rise to the detached shell occurred 3500 ± 500 yr ago.
... The Crab Nebula was observed with the Herschel PACS and SPIRE instruments as part of the Guaranteed Time (GT) programme MESS (Mass-loss of Evolved StarS, PI: M. Groenewegen, Groenewegen et al. 2011). The PACS and SPIRE photometric data sets from the MESS programme have been presented in detail by Gomez et al. (2012) and Owen & Barlow (2015). ...
We have modelled the near-infrared to radio images of the Crab Nebula with a Bayesian SED model to simultaneously fit its synchrotron, interstellar (IS), and supernova dust emission. We infer an IS dust extinction map with an average AV = 1.08 ± 0.38 mag, consistent with a small contribution (${\lesssim }22{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$) to the Crab’s overall infrared emission. The Crab’s supernova dust mass is estimated to be between 0.032 and 0.049 M⊙ (for amorphous carbon grains) with an average dust temperature Tdust = 41 ± 3 K, corresponding to a dust condensation efficiency of 8–12 ${{\ \rm per\ cent}}$. This revised dust mass is up to an order of magnitude lower than some previous estimates, which can be attributed to our different IS dust corrections, lower SPIRE flux densities, and higher dust temperatures than were used in previous studies. The dust within the Crab is predominantly found in dense filaments south of the pulsar, with an average V-band dust extinction of AV = 0.20–0.39 mag, consistent with recent optical dust extinction studies. The modelled synchrotron power-law spectrum is consistent with a radio spectral index αradio = 0.297 ± 0.009 and an infrared spectral index αIR = 0.429 ± 0.021. We have identified a millimetre excess emission in the Crab’s central regions, and argue that it most likely results from two distinct populations of synchrotron emitting particles. We conclude that the Crab’s efficient dust condensation (8–12 ${{\ \rm per\ cent}}$) provides further evidence for a scenario where supernovae can provide substantial contributions to the IS dust budgets in galaxies.
... We combine the SCUBA-2 observations with Herschel/PACS 70 µm and 160 µm imaging observations of U Ant as part of our analysis (FWHMs of 5.46 × 5.76 and 10.65 × 12.13 respectively). These data are a part of the Mass-loss of Evolved StarS (MESS) program (Groenewegen et al. 2011) and are publicly available for download via the Herschel Science Archive 2 . Here we use the Level 2.5 reduced products, the highest available pipeline-reduced data products calibrated using PACS calibration version PACS CAL 77 0. ...
We present the highest resolution single-dish submillimetre observations of the detached shell source U Antliae to date. The observations were obtained at $450~\micron$ and $850~\micron$ with SCUBA-2 instrument on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope as part of the Nearby Evolved Stars Survey. The emission at $850~\micron$ peaks at $40\arcsec$ with hints of a second peak seen at $\sim 20\arcsec$. The emission can be traced out to a radius of $56\arcsec$ at a $3\sigma$ level. The outer peak observed at $850~\micron$ aligns well with the peak observed at Herschel/PACS wavelengths. With the help of spectral energy distribution fitting and radiative transfer calculations of multiple-shell models for the circumstellar envelope, we explore the various shell structures and the variation of grain sizes along the in the circumstellar envelope. We determine a total shell dust mass of $(2.0 \pm 0.3) \times 10^{-5}$ M$_{\odot}$ and established that the thermal pulse which gave rise to the detached shell occurred 3500 $\pm$ 500 years ago.
... The Crab Nebula was observed with the Herschel PACS and SPIRE instruments as part of the Guaranteed Time (GT) programme MESS (Mass-loss of Evolved StarS, PI: M. Groenewegen, Groenewegen et al. 2011). The PACS and SPIRE photometric datasets from the MESS programme have been presented in detail by Gomez et al. (2012) and Owen & Barlow (2015). ...
We have modelled the near-infrared to radio images of the Crab Nebula with a Bayesian SED model to simultaneously fit its synchrotron, interstellar and supernova dust emission. We infer an interstellar dust extinction map with an average $A_{\text{V}}$=1.08$\pm$0.38 mag, consistent with a small contribution (<22%) to the Crab's overall infrared emission. The Crab's supernova dust mass is estimated to be between 0.032 and 0.049 M$_{\odot}$ (for amorphous carbon grains) with an average dust temperature $T_{\text{dust}}$=41$\pm$3K, corresponding to a dust condensation efficiency of 8-12%. This revised dust mass is up to an order of magnitude lower than some previous estimates, which can be attributed to our different interstellar dust corrections, lower SPIRE flux densities, and higher dust temperature than were used in previous studies. The dust within the Crab is predominantly found in dense filaments south of the pulsar, with an average V-band dust extinction of $A_{\text{V}}$=0.20-0.39 mag, consistent with recent optical dust extinction studies. The modelled synchrotron power-law spectrum is consistent with a radio spectral index $\alpha_{\text{radio}}$=0.297$\pm$0.009 and an infrared spectral index $\alpha_{\text{IR}}$=0.429$\pm$0.021. We have identified a millimetre excess emission in the Crab's central regions, and argue that it most likely results from two distinct populations of synchrotron emitting particles. We conclude that the Crab's efficient dust condensation (8-12%) provides further evidence for a scenario where supernovae can provide substantial contributions to the interstellar dust budgets in galaxies.
... Although the data suffered from saturation, we can tentatively deduce that the CSE extends up to a radius of 0.47" and 0.6" at 8 µm and 11 µm, respectively (black contours in Figure 1). Therefore, the CSE appears to be a relatively compact object in the mid-infrared with respect to the size of the envelope in the far-infrared (e.g., 70 µm PACS/Herschel map where CSE size ∼40"; see also [13]). However, the size of the photosphere must be less than 0.25". ...
... The upper limits of the radii of CSE's detected layers are tabulated in Table 1. The angular sizes were converted to physical values for an adopted distance of 590 pc [13]. Using these sizes and assuming that the expansion velocity of II Lup (v exp = 23 km s −1 ; [20]) remains the same 4 throughout the CSE, the approximate time scales for the expansion of the layers ought to be shorter than 14.6, 57, 73 and 2430 years, respectively. ...
... The near-and mid-infrared observations of II Lup reveal that the hot-and warm-dust layers of its circumstellar envelope are very compact (size ≤ 1.2") with respect to the larger and spherically-symmetric, cold-dust envelope (size ∼ 40"; [3,13]). Although the mid-infrared images are not conclusive on the asymmetry of the circumstellar envelope, which was mainly due to the quality of the data and the imaging method used, the near-infrared data indicate an oblate envelope (Figure 2). ...
We report on the observations of the circumstellar envelope of the AGB star II Lup in the near- and mid-infrared with the use of direct imaging and interferometric techniques. Our findings indicate that the circumstellar envelope is not spherically symmetric and that the majority of the emission originates within 0.5 arcsec from the star.
... Therefore, these programs also included both SCUBA-2 continuum and Heterodyne Array Receiver Program (HARP) CO(3-2) line observations. The sources in both the M15AI65 and M15BI047 samples were selected from the Herschel MESS (Mass-loss from Evolved StarS) survey sample (Groenewegen et al. 2011), showing extended emission out to a radius ≥1 arcmin at PACS 70 and 160 μm (Cox et al. 2012). With CO(3-2) observations in mind, we also stipulated the presence of strong CO(3-2) line emission with a peak T MB 2 K. Observing time allocated and telescope scheduling constraints then further restricted us to SCUBA-2 observations for 14 objects, with a 15th object (IRC +10216) being a calibration source and thus having sufficient archival observations available to be included in the analysis of the sample. ...
... We downloaded prereduced data for observations carried out by the MESS survey using the PACS instrument (Poglitsch et al. 2010). The MESS survey carried out PACS photometer observations using the scan map observing mode at a medium scan speed of 20 arcsec s −1 in the blue (70 μm) and red (160 μm) wavelength filters covering scan lengths ranging from 6 to 34 arcmin depending on target (Groenewegen et al. 2011). We downloaded level 2.5 data products 6 for the MESS PACS observations used in this study. ...
We present James Clerk Maxwell Telescope Sub-millimetre Common-User Bolometer Array 2 (SCUBA-2) 450 and 850 μm observations of 14 asymptotic giant branch stars (9 O-rich, 4 C-rich, and 1 S-type) and one red supergiant in the solar neighbourhood. We combine these observations with Herschel/PACS observations at 70 and 160 μm and obtain azimuthally averaged surface-brightness profiles and their point spread function-subtracted residuals. The extent of the SCUBA-2 850 μm emission ranges from 0.01 to 0.16 pc with an average of ~40 per cent of the total flux being emitted from the extended component. By fitting a modified blackbody to the four-point spectral energy distribution at each point along the residual profile we derive the temperature (T), spectral index of dust emissivity (β), and dust column density (Σ) as a function of radius. For all the sources, the density profile deviates significantly from what is expected for a constant mass-loss rate, showing that all the sources have undergone variations in mass loss during this evolutionary phase. In combination with results from CO line emission, we determined the dust-to-gas mass ratio for all the sources in our sample. We find that, when sources are grouped according to their chemistry, the resulting average dustto- gas ratios are consistent with the respective canonical values. However, we see a range of values with significant scatter which indicate the importance of including spatial information when deriving these numbers. © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal Astronomical Society.
... We concur with Meixner et al. (1999) andO'Hara et al. (2003) in their interpretation of these two peaks as limb-brightened peaks of a torus of dust with a radius of ∼10″. The appearance is consistent with previously obtained images at 8.8, 12.5, and 20.6 μm from Meixner et al. (1999) and PACS 70 μm images (Groenewegen et al. 2011). We stress that our SOFIA/FORCAST images do not detect the outer polar rings seen in Spitzer IRAC images (Smith 2007), suggesting that the rings must be cold and below the sensitivity limits of SOFIA/FORCAST. ...
We present Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)/Faint Object infraRed CAmera for the SOFIA Telescope (FORCAST) imaging of the circumstellar dust shells surrounding the luminous blue variable candidates MN 90 and HD 168625 to quantify the mineral abundances of the dust and to constrain the evolutionary state of these objects. Our image at 37.1 μm of MN 90 shows a limb-brightened, spherical dust shell. A least-squares fit to the spectral energy distribution of MN 90 yields a dust temperature of 59 ± 10 K, with the peak of the emission at 42.7 μm. Using 2-Dust radiative transfer code, we estimate for MN 90 that mass loss occurred at a rate of (7.3 ± 0.4) × 10⁻⁷ × (v exp/50 ) to create a dust shell with a dust mass of (3.2 ± 0.1) × 10⁻² . Our images between 7.7 and 37.1 μm of HD 168625 complement previously obtained mid-IR imaging of its bipolar nebulae. The SOFIA/FORCAST imaging of HD 168625 shows evidence for the limb-brightened peaks of an equatorial torus. We estimate a dust temperature of 170 ± 40 K for the equatorial dust surrounding HD 168625, with the peak of the emission at 18.3 μm. Our 2-Dust model for HD 168625 estimates that mass loss occurred at a rate of (3.2 ± 0.2) × 10⁻⁷ to create a dust torus/shell with a dust mass of (2.5 ± 0.1) × 10⁻³ . © 2018. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved.
... The last is based on an analysis of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, as well as far-infrared temperature maps from the DIRBE/COBE and IRAS surveys. The size of II Lup's circumstellar cloud as determined from the 70µm image is approximately 40 arcsec , however it bears no distinctive morphological features other than a round shape (Cox et al. 2012;Groenewegen et al. 2011). ...
We present the first-ever images of the circumstellar environment of the carbon-rich AGB star II Lup in the infrared and sub-mm, and the discovery of the envelope’s non-spherical morphology with the use of high-angular resolution imaging techniques with the sparse aperture masking mode on NACO/VLT (that enables diffraction limited resolution from a single telescope) and with ALMA. We have successfully recovered images in Ks (2.18$$\mu$$m), L΄ (3.80$$\mu$$m) and M΄ (4.78$$\mu$$m), that revealed the non-spherical morphology of the circumstellar envelope around II Lup. The stellar surface of the AGB star is unresolved (i.e. ≤30 mas in Ks) however the detected structure extends up to 110 mas from the star in all filters. Clumps have been found in the Ks maps, while at lower emission levels a hook-like structure appears to extend counter-clockwise from the South. At larger spatial scales, the circumstellar envelope extends up to approximately 23″, while its shape suggests a spiral at four different molecules, namely CO, SiO, CS and HC3N, with an average arm spacing of 1.7″ which would imply an orbital period of 128 years for a distance of 590pc.
