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The force-permeability sensor based on the magnetostrictive delay line (MDL) principle: (a) the force sensor monitors the permeability changes as a result of the distortion of elastic propagating waves, observed by the decrease of the Vo with the exerted force; (b) the sensor monitors the permeability changes as a result of the reflections generated in the volume where the permanent magnet is pressing the MDL, observed by the Vo of the second detected pulse, corresponding to the reflection mentioned above.
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In this paper, a new type of force sensor is presented, able to monitor localized residual stresses on steel surfaces. The principle of operation of the proposed sensor is based on the monitoring of the force exerted between a permanent magnet and the under-test steel which is dependent on the surface permeability of the steel providing a non-hyste...
Contexts in source publication
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... surface permeability sensor based on force measurements and the force digitizer principle is illustrated in Figure 4. According to this arrangement, an aluminum plate is set as the basis of the Other types of similar force sensors, like piezoelectric sensors [6], haven't been implemented for similar reasons: the time response doesn't permit a fast monitoring process. ...
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... surface permeability sensor based on force measurements and the force digitizer principle is illustrated in Figure 4. According to this arrangement, an aluminum plate is set as the basis of the sensor, which may be in contact with the under-test steel, to provide the necessary distance between this and the permanent magnet, according to the force span of the MDL. ...
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... practical, indicative, and not exclusive reasons, the width, length, and thickness of the ribbon are 6 mm, 100 mm, and 25 μm, respectively. On top of the ribbon a 10 mm long Nd-Fe permanent magnet of rectangular cross-section 5 × 5 mm 2 is glued by acrylic glue, in the middle of the amorphous ribbon, thus forming the force sensor (Figure 4a), or at one end of it, forming the force digitizer ( Figure 4b). In both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. ...
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... practical, indicative, and not exclusive reasons, the width, length, and thickness of the ribbon are 6 mm, 100 mm, and 25 μm, respectively. On top of the ribbon a 10 mm long Nd-Fe permanent magnet of rectangular cross-section 5 × 5 mm 2 is glued by acrylic glue, in the middle of the amorphous ribbon, thus forming the force sensor (Figure 4a), or at one end of it, forming the force digitizer ( Figure 4b). In both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. ...
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... both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. In the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the 300 turns and 2 mm-long search coil made of 0.05mm enameled Cu wire is set at the other end of the ribbon, while in the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), it is set 30 mm from the permanent magnet or 70 mm from the excitation coil. In both sensors, the sensing element is the assembly of permanent magnet-ribbon-aluminum. Figure 4. ...
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... both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. In the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the 300 turns and 2 mm-long search coil made of 0.05mm enameled Cu wire is set at the other end of the ribbon, while in the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), it is set 30 mm from the permanent magnet or 70 mm from the excitation coil. In both sensors, the sensing element is the assembly of permanent magnet-ribbon-aluminum. Figure 4. ...
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... the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the 300 turns and 2 mm-long search coil made of 0.05mm enameled Cu wire is set at the other end of the ribbon, while in the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), it is set 30 mm from the permanent magnet or 70 mm from the excitation coil. In both sensors, the sensing element is the assembly of permanent magnet-ribbon-aluminum. Figure 4. The force-permeability sensor based on the magnetostrictive delay line (MDL) principle: (a) the force sensor monitors the permeability changes as a result of the distortion of elastic propagating waves, observed by the decrease of the Vo with the exerted force; (b) the sensor monitors the permeability changes as a result of the reflections generated in the volume where the permanent magnet is pressing the MDL, observed by the Vo of the second detected pulse, corresponding to the reflection mentioned above. ...
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... practical, indicative, and not exclusive reasons, the width, length, and thickness of the ribbon are 6 mm, 100 mm, and 25 µm, respectively. On top of the ribbon a 10 mm long Nd-Fe permanent magnet of rectangular cross-section 5 × 5 mm 2 is glued by acrylic glue, in the middle of the amorphous ribbon, thus forming the force sensor (Figure 4a), or at one end of it, forming the force digitizer ( Figure 4b). In both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. ...
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... practical, indicative, and not exclusive reasons, the width, length, and thickness of the ribbon are 6 mm, 100 mm, and 25 µm, respectively. On top of the ribbon a 10 mm long Nd-Fe permanent magnet of rectangular cross-section 5 × 5 mm 2 is glued by acrylic glue, in the middle of the amorphous ribbon, thus forming the force sensor (Figure 4a), or at one end of it, forming the force digitizer ( Figure 4b). In both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. ...
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... both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. In the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the 300 turns and 2 mm-long search coil made of 0.05mm enameled Cu wire is set at the other end of the ribbon, while in the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), it is set 30 mm from the permanent magnet or 70 mm from the excitation coil. In both sensors, the sensing element is the assembly of permanent magnet-ribbon-aluminum. ...
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... both sensing elements, the 0.5 mm long excitation coil, made of 10 turns of 0.2 mm enameled Cu wire, is set at the one free end of the ribbon. In the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the 300 turns and 2 mm-long search coil made of 0.05mm enameled Cu wire is set at the other end of the ribbon, while in the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), it is set 30 mm from the permanent magnet or 70 mm from the excitation coil. In both sensors, the sensing element is the assembly of permanent magnet-ribbon-aluminum. ...
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... the sensing element is attached to the under-test steel surface, the electronic circuit starts recording the voltage output, corresponding to the force exerted between the permanent magnet and the under-test steel. For the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the peak to peak voltage output Vo decreases with the applied force, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel, because the elastic reflections generated at the area of the exerted force result in a decrease of the elastic wave picked up by the search coil, which is proportional to the applied force. For the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), the peak voltage output Vo at the reflection point corresponding to the position of the permanent magnet increases with the applied force on the under-test steel, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel. ...
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... the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the peak to peak voltage output Vo decreases with the applied force, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel, because the elastic reflections generated at the area of the exerted force result in a decrease of the elastic wave picked up by the search coil, which is proportional to the applied force. For the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), the peak voltage output Vo at the reflection point corresponding to the position of the permanent magnet increases with the applied force on the under-test steel, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel. ...
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... the sensing element is attached to the under-test steel surface, the electronic circuit starts recording the voltage output, corresponding to the force exerted between the permanent magnet and the under-test steel. For the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the peak to peak voltage output Vo decreases with the applied force, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel, because the elastic reflections generated at the area of the exerted force result in a decrease of the elastic wave picked up by the search coil, which is proportional to the applied force. For the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), the peak voltage output Vo at the reflection point corresponding to the position of the permanent magnet increases with the applied force on the under-test steel, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel. ...
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... the case of the force sensor (Figure 4a), the peak to peak voltage output Vo decreases with the applied force, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel, because the elastic reflections generated at the area of the exerted force result in a decrease of the elastic wave picked up by the search coil, which is proportional to the applied force. For the case of the force digitizer (Figure 4b), the peak voltage output Vo at the reflection point corresponding to the position of the permanent magnet increases with the applied force on the under-test steel, or with the localized permeability of the under-test steel. ...
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... this work, we show that instead of a permeability sensor, a force sensor may be used to avoid the drawbacks of a yoke-type permeability sensor which would be an appropriate solution for industrial use. The response of the sensing elements of Figure 4a,b is due to the force exerted by the permanent magnet on the MDL. The force, and therefore the output voltage peak, depends on the localized permeability of the under-test steel. ...
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... effect of the magnetic field emanating from the permanent magnet is considered as offset. Figure 10 illustrates the response of the force sensor depicted in Figure 4a on the permeability of the three under-test sheets. The response of the force sensor with respect to the monitored permeability from the three steel coupons was identical with an uncertainty of 1%. ...
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... response of the force sensor with respect to the monitored permeability from the three steel coupons was identical with an uncertainty of 1%. Similarly, the response of the force sensor depicted in Figure 4b is illustrated in Figure 10b for all three different types of under-test steels. Again, the response of all steels was identical, with an uncertainty of 0.5%. ...
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... effect of the magnetic field emanating from the permanent magnet is considered as offset. Figure 10 illustrates the response of the force sensor depicted in Figure 4a on the permeability of the three under-test sheets. The response of the force sensor with respect to the monitored permeability from the three steel coupons was identical with an uncertainty of 1%. ...
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... response of the force sensor with respect to the monitored permeability from the three steel coupons was identical with an uncertainty of 1%. Similarly, the response of the force sensor depicted in Figure 4b is illustrated in Figure 10b for all three different types of under-test steels. Again, the response of all steels was identical, with an uncertainty of 0.5%. ...
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... effect of the magnetic field emanating from the permanent magnet is considered as offset. Figure 10 illustrates the response of the force sensor depicted in Figure 4a on the permeability of the three under-test sheets. The response of the force sensor with respect to the monitored permeability from the three steel coupons was identical with an uncertainty of 1%. ...
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... response of the force sensor with respect to the monitored permeability from the three steel coupons was identical with an uncertainty of 1%. Similarly, the response of the force sensor depicted in Figure 4b is illustrated in Figure 10b for all three different types of under-test steels. Again, the response of all steels was identical, with an uncertainty of 0.5%. ...
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... schematic and photo of the calibration of the sensors with respect to permeability of the under-test steel, determined by the current transmitted to the excitation coil and monitored by the secondary coil of the Π shaped 7 ppm carbon soft iron electromagnetic yoke. Sensors 2019, 19, x Figure 4a; (b) the response of the sensor illustrated in Figure 4b. ...
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... schematic and photo of the calibration of the sensors with respect to permeability of the under-test steel, determined by the current transmitted to the excitation coil and monitored by the secondary coil of the Π shaped 7 ppm carbon soft iron electromagnetic yoke. Sensors 2019, 19, x Figure 4a; (b) the response of the sensor illustrated in Figure 4b. ...
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... this work, the methodology followed for these measurements was as follows: permeability measurements were made by the sensor of Figure 4a at the points where the XRD-BB stress measurements had been performed. The sensor was moved on top of the steel coupon, knowing the position of the middle of the sensing element with an uncertainty of ±0.1 mm. ...
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... sensor was moved on top of the steel coupon, knowing the position of the middle of the sensing element with an uncertainty of ±0.1 mm. A typical dependence of the response of the force sensor of Figure 4a and the stress components on the same points across the weld is indicatively illustrated in Figure 11 for the AISI 1008 coupon. The agreement between magnetic permeability and stress is evident. ...
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... agreement between magnetic permeability and stress is evident. Deviation from mean values yielded an uncertainty in Figure 4a; (b) the response of the sensor illustrated in Figure 4b. ...
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... agreement between magnetic permeability and stress is evident. Deviation from mean values yielded an uncertainty in Figure 4a; (b) the response of the sensor illustrated in Figure 4b. ...
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... this work, the methodology followed for these measurements was as follows: permeability measurements were made by the sensor of Figure 4a at the points where the XRD-BB stress measurements had been performed. The sensor was moved on top of the steel coupon, knowing the position of the middle of the sensing element with an uncertainty of ±0.1 mm. ...
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... sensor was moved on top of the steel coupon, knowing the position of the middle of the sensing element with an uncertainty of ±0.1 mm. A typical dependence of the response of the force sensor of Figure 4a and the stress components on the same points across the weld is indicatively illustrated in Figure 11 for the AISI 1008 coupon. The agreement between magnetic permeability and stress is evident. ...
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... this work, the methodology followed for these measurements was as follows: permeability measurements were made by the sensor of Figure 4a at the points where the XRD-BB stress measurements had been performed. The sensor was moved on top of the steel coupon, knowing the position of the middle of the sensing element with an uncertainty of ±0.1 mm. ...
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... sensor was moved on top of the steel coupon, knowing the position of the middle of the sensing element with an uncertainty of ±0.1 mm. A typical dependence of the response of the force sensor of Figure 4a and the stress components on the same points across the weld is indicatively illustrated in Figure 11 for the AISI 1008 coupon. The agreement between magnetic permeability and stress is evident. ...
Citations
... The sensing system was built upon permanent magnets, Fe-Ga wires, and Hall sensors to detect static and dynamic forces. In another field, Liang et al. [335] prototyped a new force sensor design using the magnetostrictive delay-line (DL) technique to monitor localized residual stresses on steel surfaces. With uncertainty less than 2%, they reported a non-hysteretic response and an automated measurement approach suitable for several industrial applications such as additive manufacturing, cold and hot rolling processes, and steel production. ...
In the era of digitalization, there is a huge focus on capturing data from manufacturing processes and systems. Since the promotion of Industry 4.0, the industrial marketplace has been crowded with solution providers who excel in capturing and aggregating data on the cloud and presenting it on dashboards. From machine states to production targets, this type of data has become more readily available from tools, controllers, switches, and factory bus systems. As the industry pushes deeper into the machine for information and aspires to have smart machines that can feel and react to experiences during the manufacturing process, then more sophisticated technology is necessary. Strain sensor technology is a logical measurement principle to address this challenge for many industrial sectors. For researchers and industrialists to progress toward the smart machine agenda, there must be a firm grasp of the “technology-solution fit,” i.e., what strain technology could provide the most appropriate solution. This paper presents a review of the state of the art in strain sensors that are foreseen as frontrunners to enable next-generation smart components and intelligent tools. The review focuses on industrial strain sensing technologies that are at a mature place on the technology readiness levels (TRLs) and present themselves as highly practical solutions for smart components and digitized machines, considering sensitivity, powered or passive, wired or wireless, and robustness. Through this review, researchers and industrialists will have a suite of solutions to move on with their innovative designs of smart machines based on embedded strain sensor technology.
... For the fast characterization of the residual stress state in the subsurface of specimens, micromagnetic measurements are well established in academic context, one commonly used being the analysis of magnetic Barkhausen noise [9e11, 13,39]. For the specimens of type B magnetic Barkhausen noise measurements were performed by means of the device j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 2 9 4 2 e2 9 5 9 ...
The residual stress state in the subsurface is a key element of surface integrity. It is well known to have a significant impact on a component’s properties in terms of fatigue behavior and resistance to wear and corrosion. For this reason, adjusting residual stresses during manufacturing is a major challenge in modern production engineering, to improve and ensure a component’s fatigue strength. In this context, hydrostatic deep rolling of the workpiece surface using adapted parameters enables the targeted induction of compressive residual stresses into subsurface layers. Due to specific properties regarding subsurface and topography for functional components in tribological applications, a further machining operation by microfinishing following deep rolling seems to be purposeful. In particular with regard to the production of components exposed to periodic load changes when used, the process combination can enable a substitution of the typically required conventional subsurface zone hardening. With the aim of economical process design, the corresponding parts can be manufactured with significantly reduced time and costs. Efficient and well-founded methods for monitoring the resulting influence on the subsurface zone properties are essential for a reproducible and target-oriented process design. The prevailing method for the non-destructive assessment of residual stresses in both academia and industry is X-ray diffractometry using the sin² ψ-method. However, this method is time-intensive and requires complex instrumentation. Thus, efforts have been undertaken in past decades to develop alternative methods for the efficient and reliable characterization of residual stresses. In this research, the applicability of the cos α-method in X-ray diffractometry and a micromagnetic approach for residual stress assessment was investigated, analyzing deep rolled and microfinished AISI 4140 specimen conditions. In addition to the diffractometric and micromagnetic measurements, metallographic and topographic analyses of machined surfaces were carried out. Deep rolling was found to induce significant compressive residual stresses of up to -1000 MPa. After microfinishing of the deep rolled surfaces, favorable compressive residual stresses remain in the subsurface, reaching approximately -600 MPa. Based on this, the production of tailored surfaces with respect to a suitable combination of topography and subsurface is possible. For all surface states investigated, a good agreement between the two approaches in X-ray diffraction was found. Magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) measurements prove to be well applicable for an efficient and holistic assessment of surface integrity in the subsurface of deep rolled and microfinished AISI 4140 specimens.
... Giant magnetostrictive materials (GMMs) are a new type of functional material that offers a high Curie temperature, high magnetic mechanical coupling coefficient, good frequency response characteristics, and large magnetostrictive strain. They are widely used in transducers [1][2][3][4], actuators [5,6], fuel injectors [7], sensors [8][9][10][11], energy collection [12][13][14], and other fields [15,16]. The characteristics of GMMs are well suited to the development of highperformance force sensors, especially their fast response speed, high energy conversion efficiency, and high compressive strength [17][18][19]. ...
Linearity is an important index for evaluating the performance of various sensors. Under the Villari effect, there may be some hysteresis between the input force and the output voltage of a force sensor, meaning that the output will be multivalued and nonlinear. To improve the linearity and eliminate the hysteresis of such sensors, an output compensation method using a variable bias current is proposed based on the bidirectional energy conversion mechanism of giant magnetostrictive material. First, the magnetization relationship between the input force, bias current, and flux density is established. Second, a nonlinear neural network model of the force-magnetization hysteresis and a neural network model for the compensation control of the force sensor are established. These models are trained using the magnetic flux density-force curve and the magnetic flux density-current curve, respectively. Taking the optimal linearity as the objective function, the bias current under different input forces is optimized. Finally, a bias current control system is developed and an experimental test platform is built to verify the proposed method. The results show that the proposed variable bias current hysteresis compensation method enables the linearity under the return of the force sensor to reach 1.6%, which is around 48.3% higher than under previous methods. Thus, the proposed variable bias current method effectively suppresses the hysteresis phenomenon and provides improved linearity for giant magnetostrictive force sensors.
... Thus, much research has been conducted in order to measure and predict the induced RSs inside materials, as this is considered an important stage for designing the structural components and estimating their reliability [2][3][4][5]. The stresses inside the material are usually estimated in two common ways, optical methods [6][7][8][9] or using physical sensors [10][11][12]. Different experimental and numerical techniques are utilized to precisely determine the magnitude and types of the stresses, such as the hole-drilling method (HDM) [13,14], X-ray diffraction (XRD) [15], the neutron diffraction method [16], the slitting method [17], and the curvature method [18]. ...
The current study presents three calibration approaches for the hole-drilling method (HDM). A total of 72 finite element models and 144 simulations were established to calibrate the measurements of the strain sensors. The first approach assumed the stresses acted on the boundaries of the drilled hole and thus analyzed the surrounding displacements field. The second analysis considered the loads on the outer surfaces of the specimen while measuring the strains’ differences between the model with and without the drilled hole. The third approach was more comprehensive as it considered the mechanical and thermal effects of the drilling operations. The proposed approaches were applied to two different materials (AISI 1045 and CFRP). The steel specimens were machined using a CNC lathe while the composite laminates were manufactured using the robotic fiber placement (RFP) process. Subsequently, the residual stresses (RSs) were measured using the HDM. The obtained data were compared with X-ray diffraction measurements for validation. The results showed better estimation of the RSs when utilizing the third approach and clear underestimation of the stresses using the second approach. A divergence in RSs values between the three approaches was also detected when measuring the stresses in the internal layers of the composite laminates.
... Recently, to decrease the time required for residual stress monitoring, we have developed force sensors based on monitoring of the force exerted on magnetostrictive delay lines (MDL for short) between a permanent magnet and the under-test steel [11]. The force is dependent on the permeability of the under-test steel, and consequently, on the localized residual stresses, as determined by the MASC technique. ...
... A single-turn circular induction heating coil with a diameter significantly smaller than the length and width of the steel is considered at a considerably small, less than 1 mm, lift-off distance above the steel. between a permanent magnet and the under-test steel [11]. The force is dependent on the permeability of the under-test steel, and consequently, on the localized residual stresses, as determined by the MASC technique. ...
... The experimental stress monitoring and annihilation set-up are illustrated in Figure 2. The system consisted of two main subsystems: the stress monitoring and the stress annihilation instruments. Concerning stress monitoring, the MDL-based force sensor was employed to determine the localized residual stresses [11]. The response of the sensor was connected to a computer and stored in digital form. ...
The monitoring and control of residual stresses and microstructure are of paramount importance for the steel industry. Residual stress annihilation is needed during the entire lifetime of steels. In this paper, we presented a stress monitoring and annihilation method, based on a force sensor for stress monitoring and an induction heater for localized heat treatment and corresponding stress annihilation. The heat treatment results indicated an at least 90% reduction of localized stresses, allowing for the implementation of the method in steel production and manufacturing to improve steel quality and perform faultless steel production and manufacturing.
Internal stress is an important factor that affects the quality of strip products. Most online detection methods for internal strip stress have been realised by contact sensors. However, contact sensors are expensive to manufacture and tend to scratch the strip surface. The purpose of this study was to develop a multi-channel non-contact stress detection system that can reflect the longitudinal stress inhomogeneity of the strip in the width direction. First, a finite element model of residual stress detection based on the magneto-elastic effect was established in COMSOL, and it was calculated that the detection sensitivity was optimal when the sensor was arranged at 45°. Magnetic shielding technology effectively reduces the minimum interference-free distance of the sensor. A prototype of the detection system was built, the accuracy of the simulation model and the feasibility of the online detection of common steel grades are proved by experiments. The simulation model can directly solve issues related to the sensor’s induced voltage and the minimum interference-free distance, thereby reducing the design cycle and trial production cost of the sensor and providing new ideas for the development of magnetic shielding technology. The experimental results demonstrated that the detection method was feasible, reliable, and displayed high detection precision.
