The distribution of Neolithic and Bronze sites unearthing millets, rice, barley, cowrie shells, and perforated stone knives in China, South Asia, and Southeast Asia (a, b, and c) Represent the distribution of different elements during 6000-4000 BP, 4000-3000 BP, and 3000-2200 BP (Detailed information is listed in Supplemental Table S1).

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Context 1

... (1990) proposed that Neolithic cultural elements from northern China (such as semisubterranean dwellings and perforated stone knives) were introduced from the Bangong Lake region into the Kashmir areas via the valleys of the Lancang and Yarlung Tsangpo Rivers. In addition to artifacts, millet remains were unearthed from two Neolithic sites in the Kashmir Valley and dated to 4500-4000 BP ( Spate et al., 2017;Yatoo et al., 2020; Figure 3a and Supplemental Table S1). This suggests a possible connection to trans-Himalayan routes via the Tibet Plateau and the Himalayan mountains or an introduction via the proto-Silk Road ( Chen et al., 2022). ...

Context 2

... stone knives were unearthed from a cultural context dated 4000-3000 BP at the Changguogou site, the Qugong site in the south Tibetan Plateau, and the Loebanr, Bir-kot-ghundai, Kalalo-deray, Bruzahom, and Gufkral sites at the Swat Valley and in Kashmir (Lü, 2016;Figure 3b). Millet and barley remains were identified and dated to 4000-3000 BP at the Changguogou site ( Fu et al., 2000) and Qugong site ( Gao et al., 2021) in the middle and lower reaches of the Yarlung Tsangpo River (Figure 3b). Millet remains were frequently found in late Harappan sites in South Asia, date to 4000-3000 BP ( Pokharia et al., 2017;Saraswat, 1993;Spate et al., 2017;Weber, 2003; Figure 3b). ...

Context 3

... and barley remains were identified and dated to 4000-3000 BP at the Changguogou site ( Fu et al., 2000) and Qugong site ( Gao et al., 2021) in the middle and lower reaches of the Yarlung Tsangpo River (Figure 3b). Millet remains were frequently found in late Harappan sites in South Asia, date to 4000-3000 BP ( Pokharia et al., 2017;Saraswat, 1993;Spate et al., 2017;Weber, 2003; Figure 3b). Barley may have been introduced to the Indian subcontinent at approximately 8000-5000 BP ( Liu et al., 2018;Petrie, 2015;Tengberg, 1999) and was widely utilized in South Asia during 6000-4000 BP (Figure 3a). ...

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... remains were frequently found in late Harappan sites in South Asia, date to 4000-3000 BP ( Pokharia et al., 2017;Saraswat, 1993;Spate et al., 2017;Weber, 2003; Figure 3b). Barley may have been introduced to the Indian subcontinent at approximately 8000-5000 BP ( Liu et al., 2018;Petrie, 2015;Tengberg, 1999) and was widely utilized in South Asia during 6000-4000 BP (Figure 3a). This frost-tolerant crop was introduced to the northeastern Tibetan Plateau at approximately 4000 BP ( Chen et al., 2015), slightly earlier than in the Yarlung Tsangpo River Valley (Figure 3b). ...

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... may have been introduced to the Indian subcontinent at approximately 8000-5000 BP ( Liu et al., 2018;Petrie, 2015;Tengberg, 1999) and was widely utilized in South Asia during 6000-4000 BP (Figure 3a). This frost-tolerant crop was introduced to the northeastern Tibetan Plateau at approximately 4000 BP ( Chen et al., 2015), slightly earlier than in the Yarlung Tsangpo River Valley (Figure 3b). While Liu et al. (2019) argue that barley was introduced into China via trans-Himalayan routes, supported by genetic evidence ( Zeng et al., 2018), more archaeobotanical evidence -significantly earlier dates of barley remains in South Asia and the southern Tibetan Plateau -is needed to test this hypothesis further. ...

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... some new radiocarbon dates spanning 3000-2200 BP from Late Bronze Age sites along the Yarlung Tsangpo River ( Wang et al., 2021) have been reported recently, the number of sites in this period is less than 4000-3000 BP (Figure 3c). This suggests there a decline in the significance of the trans-Himalayan routes or an absence of radiocarbon dating on these routes during the third millennium BP. ...

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... trans-Henguan mountain routes are along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, including the western Sichuan highland, northwestern Yunnan, and southeastern Tibet (Figure 1, Zone II). The trans-Henguan mountain exchange between China, South, and Southeast Asia was likely mainly along the "Shu-Shendu Road" (Luo, 1990) in prehistory and may start in the fifth millennium BP with a lower frequency exchange (Figure 3a). Rice remains were identified from a few Neolithic sites in South Asia and dated to 4500-4000 BP ( Long et al., 2022;Sharma et al., 2020; Figure 3a), implying the appearance of rice cultivation in South Asia by the mid-fifth millennium BP. ...

Context 8

... trans-Henguan mountain exchange between China, South, and Southeast Asia was likely mainly along the "Shu-Shendu Road" (Luo, 1990) in prehistory and may start in the fifth millennium BP with a lower frequency exchange (Figure 3a). Rice remains were identified from a few Neolithic sites in South Asia and dated to 4500-4000 BP ( Long et al., 2022;Sharma et al., 2020; Figure 3a), implying the appearance of rice cultivation in South Asia by the mid-fifth millennium BP. These rice remains might have been transmitted into South Asia following multiple dispersal routes similar to the historically documented "ShuShendu Road," although no rice remains have been found in Myanmar (Figure 3a). ...

Context 9

... remains were identified from a few Neolithic sites in South Asia and dated to 4500-4000 BP ( Long et al., 2022;Sharma et al., 2020; Figure 3a), implying the appearance of rice cultivation in South Asia by the mid-fifth millennium BP. These rice remains might have been transmitted into South Asia following multiple dispersal routes similar to the historically documented "ShuShendu Road," although no rice remains have been found in Myanmar (Figure 3a). The trans-Hengduan mountain routes might also act as essential passageways linking China and mainland Southeast Asia via north-south riverine valleys (Higham, 2002;Higham et al., 2020), although reported radiocarbon dates of 5000-4000 BP in northwestern Yunnan, which is at the hub of the "Shu-Shendu Road," are limited (Supplemental Table S1). ...

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... earliest data of millet remains in Yunnan Province are ~4600 BP from the Baiyangcun site in northwestern Yunnan (Dal Martello et al., 2018). This archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence indicates that millet crops were utilized on the southern boundary of China during the early fifth millennium BP, a little earlier than that in Thailand at ~4500 BP (D 'Alpoim Guedes et al., 2020;Higham et al., 2020; Figure 3a and Supplemental Table S1). These data suggest the formation of north-south passageways, which connected North China and mainland Southeast Asia during the fifth millennium BP, although we cannot identify the exact routes. ...

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... frequency of cultural exchange between China and South and Southeast Asia via the trans-Hengduan routes increased during 4000-3000 BP, given that the number of Bronze Age sites dated to this period along the "Shu-Shendu Road" was found to be greater than in the late Neolithic (Figure 3a and b). In our investigation in the Hengduan Mountain region of northwestern Yunnan, the Qinglong stone grave, Duanjiapingzi, and Gedeng sites were dated to 4000-3000 BP (Figure 1, Table 1). ...

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... our investigation in the Hengduan Mountain region of northwestern Yunnan, the Qinglong stone grave, Duanjiapingzi, and Gedeng sites were dated to 4000-3000 BP (Figure 1, Table 1). Rice agriculture was fully developed in northwestern Yunnan (Dal Martello et al., 2018), South Asia, and mainland Southeast Asia during 4000-3000 BP ( Liu et al., 2019) (Figure 3b). Hybridization between japonica and indica occurred in South Asia after 4000 BP, suggesting that japonica rice spread from China to South Asia by 4000-3000 BP ( Fuller et al., 2010;Vaughan et al., 2008). ...

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... dispersal into South Asia may have followed multiple routes, including the trans-Hengduan mountain routes via Myanmar and coastal routes from South China to South Asia via Southeast Asia (Fuller, 2011). This idea is also supported by the unearthing of cowrie shell and ivory remains from the Sanxingdui site (Qiu, 2013) and Jinsha site ( Zhu et al., 2002) in the Sichuan Basin, which is proposed to be introduced from India to Southwest China via the "Shu-Shendu Road" (Zhang, 2009; Figure 3b). ...

Context 14

... trans-Hengduan Mountains exchange between China and South and Southeast Asia was significantly enhanced during 3000-2200 BP. There are significantly more sites along the "ShuShendu Road" in the Hengguan Mountain region during 3000-2200 BP than for 4000-3000 BP (Figure 3b and c). This difference suggests that the importance of the trans-Hengduan routes in the cultural exchange between China and South and Southeast Asia was significantly frequented during 3000-2200 BP, and is supported by historical documents such as "Shi Ji, Da Wan Zhuan" (Li, 2011). ...

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... cowrie shell found in Xingyi (burial 8) was dated to ~4300 BP (Li, 2019). Several sites with cowrie shells and evidence of millet or millet consumption dated to ~4500-4000 BP were distributed between Bangkok and Kunming (Figure 3a), further hinting at the opening of these trans-YGP routes during the late fifth Millennium BP, although more reliable evidence is needed, especially between Tonghai and Hanoi. In addition to the above routes across Yunnan to connect North China and mainland Southeast Asia, some scholars have highlighted coastal routes from the middle-lower Yangtze to Guangdong and Guangxi, then westward and southward to Vietnam, and finally reached mainland Southeast Asia at approximately 4000 BP (Fuller, 2011;Rispoli, 2007). ...

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... trans-YGP exchange was strengthened during 4000-3000 BP. The distribution of sites along the eastern route of the "Annan Tong Tianzhu Road" and the routes between Xingyuan and Bangkok during 4000 and 3000 BP (Figure 3b) is more concentrated than those during 6000-4000 BP (Figure 3a), including the new dates from Xingyi found in this study (Figure 1, Supplemental Table S1). Millet and rice remains were identified from numerous sites dated to 4000 to 3000 BP in mainland Southeast Asia (D'Alpoim Guedes et al., 2020;Hedges et al., 1991;White and Hamilton, 2009; Figure 3b), suggesting that long-distance exchange via trans-YGP routes may have been frequented during this period. ...

Context 17

... trans-YGP exchange was strengthened during 4000-3000 BP. The distribution of sites along the eastern route of the "Annan Tong Tianzhu Road" and the routes between Xingyuan and Bangkok during 4000 and 3000 BP (Figure 3b) is more concentrated than those during 6000-4000 BP (Figure 3a), including the new dates from Xingyi found in this study (Figure 1, Supplemental Table S1). Millet and rice remains were identified from numerous sites dated to 4000 to 3000 BP in mainland Southeast Asia (D'Alpoim Guedes et al., 2020;Hedges et al., 1991;White and Hamilton, 2009; Figure 3b), suggesting that long-distance exchange via trans-YGP routes may have been frequented during this period. ...

Context 18

... distribution of sites along the eastern route of the "Annan Tong Tianzhu Road" and the routes between Xingyuan and Bangkok during 4000 and 3000 BP (Figure 3b) is more concentrated than those during 6000-4000 BP (Figure 3a), including the new dates from Xingyi found in this study (Figure 1, Supplemental Table S1). Millet and rice remains were identified from numerous sites dated to 4000 to 3000 BP in mainland Southeast Asia (D'Alpoim Guedes et al., 2020;Hedges et al., 1991;White and Hamilton, 2009; Figure 3b), suggesting that long-distance exchange via trans-YGP routes may have been frequented during this period. The cultural exchange between China and mainland Southeast Asia during the fourth millennium BP can also be supported by the additional jade artifacts ( Hung et al., 2007), although this exchange might have been via maritime routes (Hung et al., 2007;Stevens et al., 2016). ...

Context 19

... addition, the same incised and impressed pottery style was found at many sites from Yunnan to mainland Southeast Asia (Higham, 2002(Higham, , 2004), suggesting some cultural contact between the two regions. Most sites dated to 4000-3000 BP in central Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia are distributed along the ancient land passage (Figure 3b), including two remains of rice and millet from the Xingyi site in central Yunnan. This suggests that the trans-YGP routes played an essential role in the cultural exchanges between China and mainland Southeast Asia during this period. ...

Context 20

... radiocarbon dates spanning 3000-2200 BP in the Late Bronze Age sites along the eastern route of the "Annan Tong Tianzhu Road" (Archaeological Team of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Napo Museum, 2003) have been reported, including four dates of the Haibaoshan site near Dian Lake in this study ( Figure 1 and Table 1). However, the number of sites in this period is less than 4000-3000 BP (Figure 3). This may not reflect a decline in the significance of the trans-YGP routes in cultural exchanges between China and Southeast Asia as it may reflect the limited radiocarbon dating in these areas. ...

Context 21

... both crops diffused southward to Yunnan slightly later (Dal Martello et al., 2018). After 4000 BP, the west-east exchange may have been more common, as shown by the numerous sites distributed along the riverine pathways, such as the upper reaches of the Yangtze, Jinshan, Lancang, and Yagong Rivers (Figure 3). Perforated stone knives appeared at the Qugong site at approximately 3600 BP and then were probably later disseminated westward to the Changguogou site along the Yarlung Tsangpo River valley (Supplemental Table S1). ...