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The bat was identified as a subadult male Daubenton’s bat based on external characteristics. Photographer: Jeroen van der Kooij
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Background: In Europe, bat rabies is primarily attributed to European bat lyssavirus type 1 (EBLV-1) and European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) which are both strongly host-specific. Approximately thirty cases of infection with EBLV-2 in Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii) and pond bats (M. dasycneme) have been reported. Two human cases of rabie...
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Rabies is a fatal neurologic disease caused by lyssavirus infection. Bats are important natural reservoir hosts of various lyssaviruses that can be transmitted to people. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of rabies in bats are poorly understood, making it difficult to prevent zoonotic transmission. To further our understanding of lyssavirus pathoge...
Citations
... Recently, bat Polyomaviruses were detected in Hungarian Rhinolophus bats [92]. These viruses were closely related to Polyomaviruses of Chinese and African horseshoe bats, suggesting a co-divergence of bat Polyomaviruses with their hosts during their evolutionary history [81]. ...
Bats have been increasingly gaining attention as potential reservoir hosts of some of the most virulent viruses known. Numerous review articles summarize bats as potential reservoir hosts of human-pathogenic zoonotic viruses. For European bats, just one review article is available that we published in 2014. The present review provides an update on the earlier article and summarizes the most important viruses found in European bats and their possible implications for Public Health. We identify the research gaps and recommend monitoring of these viruses.
... In Europe, five bat lyssavirus species, European bat 1 lyssavirus, European bat 2 lyssavirus, West Caucasian bat lyssavirus, Lleida bat lyssavirus and Bokeloh bat lyssavirus, have been identified (Amengual et al., 2007). The main bat hosts of European bat lyssavirus type 1 (EBLV-1) are Serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus), Isabelline serotine bat (Eptesicus isabellinus), and Greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis), while European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) is identified typically in Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii) and Pond bat (Myotis dasycneme) (Amengual et al., 2007;McElhinney et al., 2018;Moldal et al., 2017;Picard-Meyer et al., 2011;Serra-Cobo et al., 2002). Concerning the less known bat-origin European lyssaviruses, Bokeloh bat lyssaviruses have been isolated from Natterer's bat (Myotis nattereri) and Common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), while the Lleida bat lyssavirus and the West Caucasian bat virus have been described from Schreibers's bent-winged bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) (Davis et al., 2005). ...
European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV‐1) is a widespread lyssavirus across Europe, whose epizootic cycle is linked to a few bat species. Occasionally, EBLV‐1 infection may occur in domestic animals and humans. EBLV‐1 can be classified into two subtypes, where subtype EBLV‐1a shows a wide geographic distribution between France and Russia whereas subtype EBLV‐1b is distributed between Spain and Poland. In this study we determined the genome sequence of two recent EBLV‐1a strains detected in Hungary and analyzed their adaptive evolution and phylodynamics. The data set that included 100 EBLV‐1 genome sequences identified positive selection at selected sites in genes coding for viral proteins (N, codon 18; P, 141 and 155; G, 244 and 488; L, 168, 980, 1597, and 1754). A major genetic clade containing EBLV‐1a isolates from Hungary, Slovakia, Denmark and Poland was estimated to have diverged during the 19th century whereas the divergence of the most recent ancestor of Hungarian and Slovakian isolates dates back to 1950 (time span, 1930 to 1970). Phylogeographic analysis of the EBLV‐1a genomic sequences demonstrated strong evidence of viral dispersal from Poland to Hungary. This new information indicates that additional migratory flyways may help the virus spread, a finding that supplements the general theory on a west‐to‐east dispersal of EBLV‐1a strains. Long‐distance migrant bats may mediate the dispersal of EBLV‐1 strains across Europe, however, structured surveillance and extended genome sequencing would be needed to better understand the epizootiology of EBLV‐1 infections in Europe.
... Wielkiej Brytanii, Finlandii, Niemczech oraz ostatnio w Norwegii (10,(13)(14)(15)(16). ...
Rabies is a zoonosis caused by RNA viruses belonging to the genus Lyssavirus, which includes 16 species. In Europe, the majority of rabies cases in bats are caused by European bat 1 lyssavirus (EBLV-1) associated mainly with serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus and Eptesicus isabellinus). In 2010, Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV) was detected in Natterer’s bat (Myotis nattereri) in Germany and it was isolated several times in Germany and France in the following years. As required by the programme of passive rabies surveillance, the dead bat was sent to the laboratory and identified as Natterer’s bat on the basis of morphological criteria, which was confirmed by genetic identification using the sequencing of the cytochrome b gene. Brain tissue and salivary glands were collected for examination. In the brain, the direct immunofluorescence test revealed lyssavirus antigen. The presence of the infectious virus in brain tissue was confirmed by a tissue culture inoculation test. High levels of viral RNA were found in the brain and salivary glands. In order to determine the virus species, a complete genome sequence was obtained by next-generation sequencing of RNAs. The analysis of the full virus genome sequence confirmed the occurrence of BBLV in Poland and revealed that it showed the highest similarity (99.3%) to German isolates from Bavaria.
... The distribution of EBLV-2, associated with Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii) and to a lesser extent in pond bats (Myotis dasycneme), is mainly limited to the United Kingdom (UK) and the Netherlands, but also to Finland, Germany, Switzerland, and, more recently, Norway [8]. The intensification of bat lyssavirus studies has led to the discovery of novel lyssaviruses in European bat populations. ...
Human rabies vaccines have been shown to induce partial protection against members of phylogroup I bat lyssaviruses. Here, we investigated the capacity of a widely used rabies inactivated vaccine (Rabisin, Boehringer-Ingelheim) for veterinary use to cross-protect mice experimentally infected with European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1b), European bat lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2), and Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV) occurring in Europe. For each lyssavirus, we investigated the efficacy of two different doses of vaccine against two viral doses administrated by either central or peripheral routes. In parallel, seroconversion following pre-exposure vaccination was investigated. In this study, we demonstrated that the three investigated bat isolates were pathogenic, even at low dose, when inoculated by the central route but were not/less pathogenic when administrated peripherally. The Rabisin vaccine was capable of significantly cross-protecting mice inoculated intramuscularly with EBLV-1b and EBLV-2 and intracerebrally with BBLV. The level of rabies neutralizing antibodies induced by the Rabisin was quite high against the bat lyssaviruses, but with no significant differences between immunization with 1 and 5 IU/dose. The study emphasizes that the quality of rabies-inactivated vaccines for veterinary use is of utmost importance to optimize the cross-protection of pets against phylogroup I bat lyssaviruses occurring in Europe.
... Although FAT is the most widely used method for rabies diagnosis and recommended by OIE and WHO 18 , few studies have demonstrated inconsistent results when different conjugates were used in the FAT 5,27 . Similar inconsistent results also appeared in TWBLV-infected cases. ...
... dasycneme) (57). An epidemiological study has indicated four separate foci of EBLV-2 in the United Kingdom (UK), the Netherlands, Finland and Switzerland (57), and in 2017 this virus was reported from Norway for the first time (61). Both EBLV-1 and EBLV-2 have been implicated in human fatalities (52,54,60). ...
Bats (order Chiroptera) are the principal reservoir host for 14 of the 16 officially recognised lyssavirus species. Rabies virus is the only lyssavirus that is well established in terrestrial carnivores (worldwide), as well as bats (but only in the Americas). The other bat lyssaviruses occur only outside the Americas. They have a distinct geographical distribution and association with specific bat species, with limited cross-species transmission to other animals and humans, resulting in deadend infections. The nucleoprotein gene is well conserved between all lyssavirus species. Therefore, gold-standard diagnostic techniques detect all lyssaviruses but do not discriminate between viral species. Lyssaviruses are divided into at least three phylogroups, based on their immunogenic and phylogenic properties. Owing to the diversity of glycoproteins among phylogroups, rabies vaccines and immunoglobulins only provide protection against phylogroup I, excluding several of the bat lyssaviruses. Africa hosts a high diversity of lyssaviruses, leading to the hypothesis that this region was the site of emergence; however, this has been challenged by more recent phylogenetic analysis, suggesting a Palearctic origin. Serological evidence indicates a more widespread and even higher diversity of lyssaviruses in bats, suggesting that the incidence of known lyssaviruses is underestimated and several new lyssavirus species are yet to be discovered. Most bats are, however, not able to transmit the virus and therefore pose a low risk to human and animal populations.
... All detections of EBLV-2 in bats in the UK (isolation of virus or detection of virus in a salivary swab) have been from Daubenton's bats. This pattern has been reflected across Europe with occasional batassociated cases reported in The Netherlands [14], Germany [15], Switzerland [16], Finland [17] and Norway [18]. ...
... The first case of EBLV-2 in Norway was reported in a Daubenton's bat in 2015. The bat was found by a member of the public in Oppland, in the southern part of Norway [42]. ...
Bat rabies cases in Europe are mainly attributed to two lyssaviruses, namely European Bat Lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1) and European Bat Lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2). Prior to the death of a bat worker in Finland in 1985, very few bat rabies cases were reported. Enhanced surveillance in the two subsequent years (1986-1987) identified 263 cases (more than a fifth of all reported cases to date). Between 1977 and 2016, 1183 cases of bat rabies were reported, with the vast majority (>97%) being attributed to EBLV-1. In contrast, there have been only 39 suspected cases of EBLV-2, of which 34 have been confirmed by virus typing and presently restricted to just two bat species; Myotis daubentonii and Myotis dasycneme. The limited number of EBLV-2 cases in Europe prompted the establishment of a network of European reference laboratories to collate all available viruses and data. Despite the relatively low number of EBLV-2 cases, a large amount of anomalous data has been published in the scientific literature, which we have here reviewed and clarified. In this review, 29 EBLV-2 full genome sequences have been analysed to further our understanding of the diversity and molecular evolution of EBLV-2 in Europe. Analysis of the 29 complete EBLV-2 genome sequences clearly corroborated geographical relationships with all EBLV-2 sequences clustering at the country level irrespective of the gene studied. Further geographical clustering was also observed at a local level. There are high levels of homogeneity within the EBLV-2 species with nucleotide identities ranging from 95.5-100% and amino acid identities between 98.7% and 100%, despite the widespread distribution of the isolates both geographically and chronologically. The mean substitution rate for EBLV-2 across the five concatenated genes was 1.65 × 10-5, and evolutionary clock analysis confirms the slow evolution of EBLV-2 both between and within countries in Europe. This is further supported by the first detailed EBLV-2 intra-roost genomic analysis whereby a relatively high sequence homogeneity was found across the genomes of three EBLV-2 isolates obtained several years apart (2007, 2008, and 2014) from M. daubentonii at the same site (Stokesay Castle, Shropshire, UK).
... In addition, antibodies against lyssavirus have been detected in Daubenton's bats from the same area [7]. EBLV-2 has sporadically been isolated from bats in the Netherlands [8], Switzerland [9], the United Kingdom [10], Finland [6], Germany [11] and Norway [12]. EBLV-2 has caused two human cases: in Finland in 1985 [13] and in the United Kingdom in 2002 [14]. ...
... FAT has been proved to be effective in detecting EBLV-2 from infected bats, but in one recorded case, the FAT test was negative on a bat sample even though viral RNA was detected by RT-PCR and the virus was isolated in a cell culture. Some laboratories have had difficulties to reliably detect EBLV strains when using the FAT, with results depending on the rabies virus antibody conjugate and even the batch used [12]. ...
European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) was detected in Finland in a Daubenton’s bat (Myotis daubentonii) found in the municipality of Inkoo (60°02′45″N, 024°00′20″E). The bat showed neurological signs and was later found dead. The laboratory analysis revealed the presence of lyssavirus, and the virus was characterized as EBLV-2. This isolation of EBLV-2 was the second time that the virus has been detected in a Daubenton’s bat in Finland. This provides additional proof that EBLV-2 is endemic in the Finnish Daubenton’s bat population.
... dascyneme). EBLV-2 has sporadically been isolated from Daubenton's bats in the Netherlands [12], Switzerland [13], the UK [14], Finland [15,16], Germany [17], Denmark [18] and Norway [19]. Finland was declared a rabies-free country by the OIE in 1991. ...
Abstract Background Rabies is preventable by pre- and/or post-exposure prophylaxis consisting of series of rabies vaccinations and in some cases the use of immunoglobulins. The success of vaccination can be estimated either by measuring virus neutralising antibodies or by challenge experiment. Vaccines based on rabies virus offer cross-protection against other lyssaviruses closely related to rabies virus. The aim was to assess the success of rabies vaccination measured by the antibody response in dogs (n = 10,071) and cats (n = 722), as well as to investigate the factors influencing the response to vaccination when animals failed to reach a rabies antibody titre of ≥ 0.5 IU/ml. Another aim was to assess the level of protection afforded by a commercial veterinary rabies vaccine against intracerebral challenge in mice with European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) and classical rabies virus (RABV), and to compare this with the protection offered by a vaccine for humans. Results A significantly higher proportion of dogs (10.7%, 95% confidence interval CI 10.1–11.3) than cats (3.5%; 95% CI 2.3–5.0) had a vaccination antibody titre of 60 cm or larger resulted in a higher risk of failing to reach an antibody level of at least 0.5 IU/ml. When challenged with EBLV-2 and RABV, 80 and 100% of mice vaccinated with the veterinary rabies vaccine survived, respectively. When mice were vaccinated with the human rabies vaccine and challenged with EBLV-2, 75–80% survived, depending on the booster. All vaccinated mice developed sufficient to high titres of virus-neutralising antibodies (VNA) against RABV 21–22 days post-vaccination, ranging from 0.5 to 128 IU/ml. However, there was significant difference between antibody titres after vaccinating once in comparison to vaccinating twice (P
