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The accuracy of the measured height differences and standard error ellipses of the positioning coordinates of points.
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This paper describes in detail the development of a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) model for the acquisition, processing and visualisation of underground utility infrastructure (UUI) in a controlled environment. The initiative was to simulate a subsurface urban environment through the construction of regional road, local road and pedestrian pavemen...
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This paper presents the results of a research study where ground penetrating radar (GPR) was successfully used to reveal the remains of the Württemberg-Stambol Gate in the subsurface of Republic Square, in Belgrade, Serbia. GPR investigations were carried out in the context of renovation works in the square, which involved rearranging traffic contr...
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... The availability of a reliable and safe method was the key reason behind this. Metal detectors have insufficient penetration depth and are occasionally unable to identify low-metal bombs [60,72,73]. In the last decade, forensic geophysics has evolved technologically, and remote-controlled high-frequency GPR systems have been developed to safely probe shallow buried explosives devices [6,74]. ...
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has become an invaluable geophysical technique across engineering and geoscience domains worldwide. It has the ability to quickly analyze objects and help in the delineation of possible ambiguity in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. Therefore, it is the recommended technique among other alternatives since it can provide high-resolution 2D and 3D cross-sectional images of various surfaces. The goal of the current review is to provide a thorough understanding of the most recent developments in GPR technology. It offers a concise summary by systematically examining relevant literature and case studies. Additionally, it delves into the challenges and opportunities linked with integrating GPR across various geoengineering disciplines. Essential fundamental principles of data acquisition in diverse survey modes are also addressed. Furthermore, the review emphasizes case studies from Gujarat, Western India, illustrating the application of GPR in subsurface investigations of sedimentary structures, active fault delineation, and liquefaction studies. These case studies aid in improving understanding of the interpretation of radar data and related geological complexity. The illustrations, which are from our published research, show how well GPR works to determine the subsurface geometry of faults and associated deformation, map the point bar and coastal dune facies, and identify the type of liquified sand vents in the paleoliquefaction craters connected to the great Bhuj earthquake (Mw 7.8) of 2001. Ultimately, the review aims to motivate geoscientists and engineers to use nondestructive GPR techniques to investigate near-surface heterogeneities in a sustainable manner.
... Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) [22][23][24][25][26] Total station [27][28][29][30][31] InSAR [32][33][34][35][36] Distributed optical fiber [37][38][39][40][41] Subgrade frost heaving Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) [42][43][44][45] Multi-sensor embedding [46][47][48][49][50] Weak subgrade Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) [51][52][53][54][55][56] 2.2. Monitoring Technology Table 1 summarizes the representative research findings related to embankment and subgrade distress detection, and the detailed applications are elaborated in the following subsections. ...
... Similarly, Elsecy Ahmed and colleagues [23] have utilized ground-penetrating radar to detect flexible and rigid pavements. Sarlah Nikolaj et al. [24] have combined robots with ground-penetrating radar to detect settlements on urban roads, demonstrating their robustness. With regards to distress detection in the subgrade, Yuqiqin et al. [25] have proposed an algorithm based on continuous wavelet transform. ...
The attributes of diversity and concealment pose formidable challenges in the accurate detection and efficacious management of distresses within subgrade structures. The onset of subgrade distresses may precipitate structural degradation, thereby amplifying the frequency of traffic incidents and instigating economic ramifications. Accurate and timely detection of subgrade distresses is essential for maintaining and repairing road sections with existing distresses. This helps to prolong the service life of road infrastructure and reduce financial burden. In recent years, the advent of numerous novel technologies and methodologies has propelled significant advancements in subgrade distress detection. Therefore, this review delineates a concentrated examination of subgrade distress detection, methodically consolidating and presenting various techniques while dissecting their respective merits and constraints. By furnishing comprehensive guidance on subgrade distress detection, this review facilitates the expedient identification and targeted treatment of subgrade distresses, thereby fortifying safety and enhancing durability. The pivotal role of this review in bolstering the construction and operational facets of transportation infrastructure is underscored.
... For the exterior part of buildings, a promising approach is the GPR survey using drones or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The combination of GPR with UAV surveys promotes the joint assessment of photogrammetric records and other NDT tests (Biscarini et al. 2020;Šarlah et al. 2019;Serrat et al. 2019). The main limitations of this approach are due to antenna weights and their position on the UAV, as the survey can be mainly performed in a top-down direction, restricted to roofs. ...
Moisture is one of the main causes of degradation of heritage buildings. Early detection of zones affected by moisture is crucial information for preservation and maintenance of those structures. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is an effective survey method to assess damage in civil engineering and structures. Several methodologies involving this technique have been applied to determine the extension of damping in concrete, stone, and brick structures. This article summarizes the different signal analysis techniques generally used to detect moisture from GPR data. Four different case studies are included, covering different types of buildings. The case studies include the description of the problem, the results, the methodology (data acquisition, survey parameters, and processing), and the limits and advantages. Comparing the different studies, the limitations and advantages are associated with each type of problem and a final discussion describes other non-destructive testing techniques, numerical simulations and methodologies that could provide more reliable understanding when combined with GPR data.
... Many research examples confirm the relatively high effectiveness of the GPR method in the detection of underground utility networks [13,14] and the localization and diagnosis of shallow crypts and tunnels [15][16][17]. However, some differences between anthropogenic and natural forms should be noted. ...
During road construction investments, the key issue affecting the structure’s safety is accurate subsoil recognition. Identifying subsoil variability zones or natural voids can be performed using geophysical methods, and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is recommended for this task as it identifies the location and spatial range karst formations. This paper describes the methodology of acquisition and processing of GPR data for ground recognition for road investment. Additional subsoil research was performed after karst phenomena were identified in the investment area, formations not revealed by geological recognition from earlier studies during the pre-design stage. Mala Ramac CU II radar with a 250 MHz antenna and a Leica DS2000 with 250 and 700 MHz antennas with real-time geopositioning were used to obtain the data. Regarding GPR data postprocessing, we present a method of converting spatial visualization into a point cloud that allows for GPR and geodetic data integration and confrontation. This approach enabled us to determine the locations of control trenches, the results of which were used for material validation, which is necessary to improve the reliability of subsoil recognition. The results showed a high correlation between the recorded GPR signals and the subsoil structure. Additionally, differences in the quality of results for measurements conducted before laying supporting layers with slag and on the completed road structure surface are illustrated.
... The methodology consists of comparing synthetic data obtained for different angles between the antenna and the target with field data, thus contributing to automation in the antenna positioning. The self-detection of the antenna position is possible using fixed reflectors on the surface [265] or using a geodetic network in order to georeference the position of each Ascan and the anomalies in the radargrams [266]. The work by Gabrys and Ortyl [267] compare several georeferencing systems in GPR surveys for the detection of layers and pipes under the pavement in C-scans. ...
... In this way, in some cases, the use of drones has been also proposed and tested. The common application consists of the combination of a usual GPR survey with a photogrammetric study by means of an UAV and other techniques [266,318]. However, some authors propose prototypes to mount the GPR on an UAV [334]. ...
The non-destructive testing and diagnosis of transport infrastructures is essential because of the need to protect these facilities for mobility, and for economic and social development. The effective and timely assessment of structural health conditions becomes crucial in order to assure the safety of the transportation system and time saver protocols, as well as to reduce excessive repair and maintenance costs. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is one of the most recommended non-destructive methods for routine subsurface inspections. This paper focuses on the on-site use of GPR applied to transport infrastructures, namely pavements, railways, retaining walls, bridges and tunnels. The methodologies, advantages and disadvantages, along with up-to-date research results on GPR in infrastructure inspection are presented herein. Hence, through the review of the published literature, the potential of using GPR is demonstrated, while the main limitations of the method are discussed and some practical recommendations are made.
... In these works, deep penetration of the probing signal is not required, and the emphasis is done on spatial resolution and visualization of low-contrast objects. Combining unmanned platform-based GPR with a terrestrial positioning system will provide a useful tool for surveying rural areas and urban underground infrastructure [21,22]. ...
Deployment of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) on a flying machine allows one to substantially extend the application area of this geophysical method and to simplify carrying out large surveys of dangerous and hard-to-reach terrain, where usual ground-based methods are hardly applied. There is a necessity to promote investigations in this direction by modifying hardware characteristics and developing specific proceeding algorithms. For this purpose, we upgraded commercial ground-based subsurface sounding hardware and performed corresponding computer simulation and real experiments. Finally, the first experimental flights were done with the constructed GPR prototype mounted on a helicopter. Using our experience in the development of ground-based GPR and the results of numerical simulations, an appropriate configuration of antennas and their placing on the flying machine were chosen. Computer modeling allowed us to select an optimal resistive loading of transmitter and receiver dipoles; calculate radiation patterns on fixed frequencies; analyze the efficiency of different conductor diameters in antenna circuit; calculate cross-coupling of transmitting and receiving antennas with the helicopter. Preliminary laboratory experiments to check the efficiency of the designed system were performed on an urban building site, using a tower crane with the horizontal jib to operate the measuring system in the air above the ground area to be sounded. Both signals from the surface and subsurface objects were recorded. To interpret the results, numerical modeling was carried out. A two-dimensional model of our experiment was simulated, it matches well the experimental data. Laboratory experiments provided an opportunity to estimate the level of spurious reflections from the external objects, which helps to recognize weak signals from subsurface objects in GPR surveys under live conditions.
... Some countries, understanding the possibilities of the method as a noninvasive way of verifying underground utility networks, implemented regulations on the methodology and range of its use, as well as the suspected accuracy depending on the measurement variant. Independent groups of researchers conducted studies aiming to answer the question of how legitimate and possible it is to achieve the assumptions and requirements of the aforementioned regulations against the actual results of GPR works [7,13]. These issues were also included in a summary of the studies on the accuracy results for the set GPR and positioning instrument [14]. ...
Due to the capabilities of non-destructive testing of inaccessible objects, GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) is used in geology, archeology, forensics and increasingly also in engineering tasks. The wide range of applications of the GPR method has been provided by the use of advanced technological solutions by equipment manufacturers, including multi-channel units. The acquisition of data along several profiles simultaneously allows time to be saved and quasi-continuous information to be collected about the subsurface situation. One of the most important aspects of data acquisition systems, including GPR, is the appropriate methodology and accuracy of the geoposition. This publication aims to discuss the results of GPR measurements carried out using the multi-channel Leica Stream C GPR (IDS GeoRadar Srl, Pisa, Italy). The significant results of the test measurement were presented the idea of which was to determine the achievable accuracy depending on the georeferencing method using a GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) receiver, also supported by time synchronization PPS (Pulse Per Second) and a total station. Methodology optimization was also an important aspect of the discussed issue, i.e., the effect of dynamic changes in motion trajectory on the positioning accuracy of echograms and their vectorization products was also examined. The standard algorithms developed for the dedicated software were used for post-processing of the coordinates and filtration of echograms, while the vectorization was done manually. The obtained results provided the basis for the confrontation of the material collected in urban conditions with the available cartographic data in terms of the possibility of verifying the actual location of underground utilities. The urban character of the area limited the possibility of the movement of Leica Stream C due to the large size of the instrument, however, it created the opportunity for additional analyses, including the accuracy of different location variants around high-rise buildings or the agreement of the amplitude distribution at the intersection of perpendicular profiles.
... for the prevention of damage [5]. The following types of UI are registered: energy supply infrastructure (electric energy, natural gas, heating, oil transport), water-distribution system, stormwater drainage, sewer system, street lighting and traffic lighting cables and electronic communications networks [8,9]. ...
... Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1228 7 of 26 processing of the radargrams, developed in Šarlah et al. [5], was obtained. The quantitative data for the 3D display of UUI was obtained through the selected collection of the procedures for processing the radar sections and an analysis of individual radar reflections [34,35], which are already fulfilled with the GPR-TPS model. ...
... The unseen network of UUI is very complex in any urban environment [4]. Their importance and utility infrastructure cadastre would not be obvious until hazards and problems arise, such as a gas explosion, road collapse due to subsurface wash-out, water leakage and seepage to the road surface, etc [4][5][6][7]. ...
This paper describes in detail the applicability of the developed ground-penetrating radar (GPR) model with a kinematic GPR and self-tracking (robotic) terrestrial positioning system (TPS) surveying setup (GPR-TPS model) for the acquisition, processing and visualisation of underground utility infrastructure (UUI) in a real urban environment. The integration of GPR with TPS can significantly improve the accuracy of UUI positioning in a real urban environment by means of efficient control of GPR trajectories. Two areas in the urban part of Celje in Slovenia were chosen. The accuracy of the kinematic GPR-TPS model was analysed by comparing the three-dimensional (3D) position of UUI given as reference values (true 3D position) from the officially consolidated cadastre of utility infrastructure in the Republic of Slovenia and those obtained by the GPR-TPS method. To determine the reference 3D position of the GPR antenna and UUI, the same positional and height geodetic network was used. Small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) were used for recording to provide a better spatial display of the results of UUI obtained with the GPR-TPS method. As demonstrated by the results, the kinematic GPR-TPS model for data acquisition can achieve an accuracy of fewer than 15 centimetres in a real urban environment.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) as non-destructive measurement of full-wave electromagnetic(EM) backscatter completely relies on dielectric permittivity. Interpreting GPR reflection configuration is a complex qualitative with positioning and depth determination would be misleading due to severe polarization and velocity mismatch in travelling-wave. As a result of these studies, a GPR signal segmentation algorithm model was developed to map and identify light non-aqueous liquid (LNAPL) contaminated in laterite soil utilizing dielectric permittivity prediction. Simultaneous registration of a Global Positioning System (GPS) signal was performed while acquiring georeferenced GPR data sets to pinpoint the appropriate location of the soil layers. In this way, georeferenced GPR dispersion was assessed and dielectric permittivity was retrieved by velocity extraction. Empirical model relationship was established by the higher-order regression. Calibration function used verification measurement with root mean square error (RMSE) and calibrated Performance Network Analyzer (PNA). Segmentation and classification using Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier as Artificial Intelligence (AI) was executed using predicted dielectric permittivity to construct the GPR automated recognition model. The model was compared with actual data and logistic regression classification. The result shows both classification techniques have provided good quality with root mean square errors (RMSE), which were 0.1391 and 0, respectively. The classification produces correct instances classified above 98% for SVM and 100% for logistic regression.
