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The RF detector circuit demodulates incoming 300 MHz radiation and boosts the signal across logic levels to wake the microcontroller.
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This paper describes CargoNet, a system of low-cost, micropower active sensor tags that seeks to bridge the current gap between wireless sensor networks and radio- frequency identification (RFID). CargoNet was aimed at applications in environmental monitoring at the crate and case level for supply-chain management and asset secu- rity. Custom-desig...
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Citations
... Due to the flexibility of the magnetic excitation scheme, the wakeup device can be used in various scenarios such as monitoring the structural integrity of infrastructures [43][44][45], vehicle tracking [9,46], and door monitoring [37]. In addition, such wakeup devices can also be integrated where high levels of acceleration occur, e.g., when dropped objects impact from heights [47,48], and in tires of cars [49]. However, for such applications, the long-term stability of the device needs to be investigated in future work. ...
A zero-power wakeup scheme for energy-efficient sensor applications is presented in this study based on a piezoelectric MEMS energy harvester featuring wafer-level-integrated micromagnets. The proposed setup overcomes a hybrid assembly of magnets on a chip-level, a major drawback of similar existing solutions. The wakeup device can be excited at low frequencies by frequency up-conversion, both in mechanical contact and contactless methods due to magnetic force coupling, allowing various application scenarios. In a discrete circuit, a wakeup within 30–50 ms is realized in frequency up-conversion at excitation frequencies < 50 Hz. A power loss in the off state of 0.1 nW renders the scheme virtually lossless. The potential extension of battery lifetime compared to cyclical wakeup schemes is discussed for a typical wireless sensor node configuration.
... While continuous digital sensing has been shown to achieve hundreds of hours of lifetime [15], such devices have idle sensing costs in the order of multiple mW. To avoid this, analog trigger front-ends have been previously introduced to discover seismic events more efficiently using geophones [28,36] and a variety of other sensors [34]. However, in these cases communication was disregarded and data was assumed to be collected opportunistically or in periodic batches. ...
... This latter benefits by reducing the data latency. Semi-Passive Unicast Out-of-Band [40][41][42] In-Band [43][44][45] Indifferent [25,[46][47][48][49] In-Band [50] Active Unicast Out-of-Band [51][52][53][54][55] In-Band [56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63] Indifferent [64][65][66][67] Broadcast ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) is currently used in many wireless sensor network (WSN) applications. Conventionally, the WSN’s energy consumption is considered as one of the prime concerns. The energy consumption is mostly due to the sensing, data processing, communications and other wasted energies such as idle listening, collisions and overhearing. These sensor nodes are regularly powered by an external power source and consequently have a shorter lifetime. Fortunately, different approaches for wireless energy harvesting (WEH) have been improved. Thus, wake-up radio (WuR) becomes a remedy for WEH which provides active, passive and semi-passive circuits consumption and other protocols. For instance, the most used, convincing and productive go to passive WuR which can significantly increase the network lifetime in a sensor network (SN) by decreasing unnecessary idle listening. Eventually, this paper proposes a state of the art in active, semi-passive, centering more on passive WuR and covers the applications areas. Then, an overview of WuR related to physical, medium access control (MAC) and routing layers. Lastly, the paper accentuates the potential research opportunities for wake-up technology for future IoT applications.
... Je tiens à remercier toutes les personnes m'ayant aidé à mener ce travail à bien, en particulier : Introduction L'utilisation de capteurs intelligents est en constante augmentation depuis les 15 dernières années. En effet, on peut retrouver des noeuds de capteurs dans de nombreux domaines de la vie courante, tels que la surveillance de la santé humaine [1], [2], la vérification de l'intégrité matérielle d'édifices architecturaux, tels que des ponts ou des bâtiments [3], [4], l'agriculture de précision [5], [6] ou encore dans le domaine de la maintenance industrielle [7]. D'après BBC research, le marché des capteurs pour l'internet des objets a représenté 10.5 Milliards de dollars en 2017, et atteindra 48 milliards de dollars en 2023, soit une augmentation de 27.8% par an [8]. ...
La consommation des capteurs de réveil sur évènement actuels doit êtredrastiquement réduite, dans l’optique d’obtenir des performances en autonomiedes nœuds de capteurs allant jusqu’à plusieurs dizaines d’années. Pour contrer leslimites en termes de bruit inhérentes à l’électronique analogique classique pourl’ultra-faible consommation, une méthode de conception innovante de conceptionpeut être mise en œuvre : la conception électronique dans le domaine temporel.Elle est caractérisée par un encodage de l’information non plus dans la variationanalogique de l’amplitude d’un signal électrique, mais dans un déphasage entredeux signaux, permettant la réduction de la tension d’alimentation des circuits àdes niveaux inférieurs à 0.5V.Bénéficiant de leur propriété de déphaseurs naturels, les OscillateursVerrouillés par Injection (OVI) se prêtent particulièrement bien à la conceptiondans le domaine temporel. Dans ce manuscrit, on propose d’étudier unearchitecture particulière d’OVI à injection capacitive, afin d’en extraire lespropriétés d’encodage statique et dynamique de l’information. Par la suite, onexploite les caractéristiques dynamiques de l’OVI afin de réaliser une architecturede filtre passe-bande dans le domaine temporel, destinée à être utilisée dans desapplications de décomposition spectrale pour la détection de réveil sur évènement.Ce projet a permis la réalisation de deux circuits fonctionnels en 22nm FDSOI et65nm CMOS, démontrant la faisabilité d’une banque de filtres à OVI de 4 canauxconsommant 12.1nW.
... Amplitude analysis is another oft-used audio processing method. It is typically executed through a thresholding scheme like the structural integrity monitor presented in [9]. Adaptive thresholding was proposed for vehicle detection in [10]. ...
... Although this paper expands on the work described in [6], it differs in a few aspects from previous works that offered solutions to the AVDC problem. Related works utilized application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) [1,6,9,10,25]. ASICs offer superb performance, ultra-low power consumption (especially with an integrated MSP), and good robustness. ...
The wireless sensor nodes used in a growing number of remote sensing applications are deployed in inaccessible locations or are subjected to severe energy constraints. Audio-based sensing offers flexibility in node placement and is popular in low-power schemes. Thus, in this paper, a node architecture with low power consumption and in-the-field reconfigurability is evaluated in the context of an acoustic vehicle detection and classification (hereafter “AVDC”) scenario. The proposed architecture utilizes an always-on field-programmable analog array (FPAA) as a low-power event detector to selectively wake a microcontroller unit (MCU) when a significant event is detected. When awoken, the MCU verifies the vehicle class asserted by the FPAA and transmits the relevant information. The AVDC system is trained by solving a classification problem using a lexicographic, nonlinear programming algorithm. On a testing dataset comprising of data from ten cars, ten trucks, and 40 s of wind noise, the AVDC system has a detection accuracy of 100%, a classification accuracy of 95%, and no false alarms. The mean power draw of the FPAA is 43 μ W and the mean power consumption of the MCU and radio during its validation and wireless transmission process is 40.9 mW. Overall, this paper demonstrates that the utilization of an FPAA-based signal preprocessor can greatly improve the flexibility and power consumption of wireless sensor nodes.
... Asset tracking application specific quasi-passive wake-up radios are proposed in [122]. The wake-up radio design requirement for asset tracking should be able to operate for the long-term with bidirectional communication and high energy efficiency. ...
Wake-up radio is a promising approach to mitigate the problem of idle listening, which incurs additional power consumption for the Internet of Things (IoT) wireless transmission. Radio frequency (RF) energy harvesting technique allows the wake-up radio to remain in a deep sleep and only become active after receiving an external RF signal to ‘wake-up’ the radio, thus eliminating necessary hardware and signal processing to perform idle listening, resulting in higher energy efficiency. This review paper focuses on cross-layer; physical and media access control (PHY and MAC) approaches on passive wake-up radio based on the previous works from the literature. First, an explanation of the circuit design and system architecture of the passive wake-up radios is presented. Afterward, the previous works on RF energy harvesting techniques and the existing passive wake-up radio hardware architectures available in the literature are surveyed and classified. An evaluation of the various MAC protocols utilized for the novel passive wake-up radio technologies is presented. Finally, the paper highlights the potential research opportunities and practical challenges related to the practical implementation of wake-up technology for future IoT applications.
... Next, we present WuR prototypes that utilize such architecture. [110], [111], [112], [113] , [114], [115], [116], [117] , [118] , [119], [120], [32] RFID [121] Malinowski et al. [121] reported the first "quasi-passive wake-up" system utilizing RFID technology called CargoNet. CargoNet employs a 300 MHz RFID tag to trigger an ultralow power MSP430 based sensor node. ...
... Next, we present WuR prototypes that utilize such architecture. [110], [111], [112], [113] , [114], [115], [116], [117] , [118] , [119], [120], [32] RFID [121] Malinowski et al. [121] reported the first "quasi-passive wake-up" system utilizing RFID technology called CargoNet. CargoNet employs a 300 MHz RFID tag to trigger an ultralow power MSP430 based sensor node. ...
... Malinowski et al. [121] presented the idea of quasi-passive wakeup for asset monitoring. In this work WuRx has been integrated with sensor nodes acting as tags. ...
In wireless environments, transmission and recep- tion costs dominate system power consumption, motivating re- search effort on new technologies capable of reducing the foot- print of the radio, paving the way for the Internet of Things. The most important challenge is to reduce power consumption when receivers are idle, the so called idle-listening cost. One approach proposes switching off the main receiver, then introduces new wake-up circuitry capable of detecting an incoming transmission, discriminating the packet destination using addressing, then switching on the main radio only when required. This wake- up receiver (WuRx) technology represents the ultimate frontier in low power radio communication. In this paper, we present a comprehensive literature review of the research progress in wake- up radio (WuR) hardware and relevant networking software. First, we present an overview of the WuR system architecture, including challenges to hardware design and a comparison of solutions presented throughout the last decade. Next, we present various Medium Access Control (MAC) and routing protocols as well as diverse ways to exploit WuRs, both as an extension of pre-existing protocols and as a new concept to manage low-power networking.
... Malinowski et al. [64] developed a direct amplifying RF tag, operating at 300MHz as a part of the CargoNet project [64]. Contrary to RFIDimpulse, in this scheme the node is only equipped with this tag, while the CargoNet system is equipped with a single reader that interrogates the different tags of the nodes. ...
... Malinowski et al. [64] developed a direct amplifying RF tag, operating at 300MHz as a part of the CargoNet project [64]. Contrary to RFIDimpulse, in this scheme the node is only equipped with this tag, while the CargoNet system is equipped with a single reader that interrogates the different tags of the nodes. ...
The use of a low-power wake-up radio in wireless sensor networks is considered in this paper, where relevant medium access control solutions are studied. A variety of asynchronous wake-up MAC protocols have been proposed in the literature, which take advantage of integrating a second radio to the main one for waking it up. However, a complete and a comprehensive survey particularly on these protocols is missing in the literature. This paper aims at filling this gap, proposing a relevant taxonomy, and pro- viding deep analysis and discussions. From both per- spectives of energy efficiency and latency reduction, as well as their operation principles, state-of-the-art wake-up MAC protocols are grouped into three main categories: i) duty cycled wake-up MAC protocols, ii) non-cycled wake-up protocols, and iii) path reserva- tion wake-up protocols. The first category includes two subcategories, i) static wake-up protocols vs. ii) traffic adaptive wake-up protocols. Non-cycled wake- up MAC protocols are again divided into two classes i) always-on wake-up protocol, and ii) radio-triggered wake-up protocols. The latter is in turn split into two subclasses: i) passive wake-up MAC protocols, vs. ii) ultra low power active wake-up MAC protocols. Two schemes could be identified for the last category, broadcast based wake-up vs. addressing based wake- up. All these classes are discussed and analized in this paper, and canonical protocols are investigated following the proposed taxonomy.
... Wireless technology has already been used for many applications (e.g. habitat monitoring [1,2], environmental parameters detection [3,4], healthcare [5,6] and supply chain management [7]). However, all of them do not require high accuracy measurement and high transmission rate, thus data acquisition is easy to achieve. ...
Structural health monitoring (SHM) plays an important role in maintaining system integrity of aging structures and machinery parts. Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) accelerometers, because of their low cost and small dimensions, have emerged as attractive sensing tools for monitoring structural condition based on changes in structural vibration characteristics. For SHM applications, these sensors need to detect low-amplitude and low-frequency vibrations (microvibrations). Those are not always feasible with the conventional low-cost digital sensor boards. In this paper, a novel accelerometer board, named acceleration evaluator (ALE), is developed to achieve more accurate wireless vibration measurements using the full bandwidth of the installed MEMS accelerometer by a voltage-to-frequency converter, instead of the conventional analog-to-digital converter. The effectiveness of the prototype is evaluated through laboratory tests, demonstrating its measurement accuracy comparable to that of wire-based integral electronics piezoelectric accelerometers. Furthermore, ALE performance for SHM purposes is validated by carrying out shaking table tests on the real-size model of a stone pinnacle of the Washington D.C. National Cathedral.
... The major limitations of synchronous methods is time synchronization which can lose important events, and the trade-off between energy reduction and sleep periods. Asynchronous methods, on the other hand, allow sensor nodes to operate independently, by switching between active and sleep mode, at the rate of event occurrence [11]- [10]. ...
... They pursue the improvement in energy efficiency by using an analog wake-up stages for preliminary event detection. Simple examples of acoustic wake-up circuits, featuring wake-up on magnitude-based detection of acoustic activity, are shown in [11] and [12], where effectiveness of the approach is supported by extensive simulation of power-savings resulting from inclusion of the wake-up circuit. More advanced design, from the field of human speech detection [13], demonstrated the integrated wake-up circuit within a power-budget of 500 µW. ...
In many distributed sensing applications, continuous sensor monitoring requires processing with a significant energy footprint, which hinders autonomous operation and battery lifetime of sensor nodes. In our research we explore the power savings gained by splitting the hardware architecture for continuous monitoring into two stages: an always-on ultra- low-power mixed-signal wake-up circuit placed near the sensor, performing coarse recognition (e.g. wake-up circuit) and waking up the main digital processing unit only on event detection. This enables for activation of energy-hungry digital processing only at the rate of event occurrence without penalising responsiveness and monitoring continuity. We focus on the wake-up circuit performing recognition of spectrotemporal audio patterns, consisting of spectro-temporal feature extraction, and the classification sub- circuits. We propose a novel design of the feature extraction circuit. It consists of a spectral decomposition multi-channel analog band-pass filter bank, implemented in generalized impedance converter topology (GIC), and the bank of passive channel detectors for measuring the intervals of in- band signals. Experimental filter characterization demonstrated the benefits of proposed filtering topology for low-power applications in the audio frequency range even with operational amplifiers of very limited bandwidth. Detector’s response was verified in multi-channel environment. Preliminary analysis showed power consumption ranging from 10.5 to 13.5 μW per channel using off-the-shelf components.
