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The IENT81, later HMS I, measurement system developed at IENT Aachen and commercialized by HEAD-acoustics. Courtesy: HEAD-acoustics.
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![Figure 8. The tète Charlin [79].](profile/Stephan-Paul/publication/233582452/figure/fig10/AS:668420936851458@1536375378171/The-tete-Charlin-79_Q320.jpg)
![Figure 9. The experimental microphone of Schoeps [80].](profile/Stephan-Paul/publication/233582452/figure/fig11/AS:668420936839170@1536375378202/The-experimental-microphone-of-Schoeps-80_Q320.jpg)
The facsimile or true-to-original reproduction of sound events is of great interest in acoustics and related areas and has been researched for many years. One form of achieving this is binaural technology. Many consider binaural technology a very modern technology and some even consider that it is strictly related to and was invented for sound qual...
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Citations
... For the binaural measurements, the Neumann KU100 (Berlin, Germany) dummy head was used, which models a human listener [17]. The signal chain included a laptop computer and an RME Babyface Pro interface (Haimhausen, Germany) for recording 2channel audio at a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz. ...
Open-plan offices (OPOs) have been around for more than half a century now, chronicling the vicissitudes of workplace topography amongst other factors. This paper addresses one such factor - the sound environment in occupied OPOs in relation to several objective workplace parameters, using measurements in contemporary OPOs and comparisons with studies over the last 50 years. Omnidirectional and binaural sound measurements were conducted in 43 offices during typical working hours. The results describe variation in several acoustic and psychoacoustic metrics, and present statistical models that predict these metrics as a function of the number of workstations in offices. LA,eq of 53.6 dB is typical for occupied OPOs, with spectral slope of approximately -4 dB/octave. LA,eq values do not vary much over the workplace parameters studied (e.g., floor plate area, work activity, etc), except for -2.7 dB and -4.1 dB differences between offices with/without carpeting, and offices with ceiling absorption but with/without carpeting, respectively; most likely from reduced floor impact noise leading to speech level reduction. Sound fluctuation, as characterised by the metric Noise Climate (NCl: LA10 - LA90) and the psychoacoustic Fluctuation Strength (FS), decreases significantly with increasing number of workstations in OPOs. This suggests lesser auditory distraction in larger offices, which needs further investigation. In terms of historical trends, OPOs have become quieter over the years, especially background noise quantified as LA90, although there are several subtleties. Overall, current findings can inform several OPO design perspectives including policy documents, provide values for laboratory simulations of OPO acoustic environments, help interpret subjective impressions of OPO occupants, etc.
... Bei der binauralen Aufnahme handelt es sich um eine spezielle Kopfmikrofon-Aufnahme, die eine bemerkenswerte Forschungshistorie aufweist. Die Idee möglichst so aufzunehmen, wie der Mensch zu hören imstande ist, geht auf den US-amerikanischen Pionier der Psychoakustik Harvey Fletcher zurück (Paul 2009;Brech 2015). Vor etwa 100 Jahren entdeckten er und Leon Sivian im Zuge der Erforschung der Stereo-und Telefonie eine neue Aufnahmeoption (Paul 2009 Kunstkopf ', a term that was also adopted by Englishspeaking authors" (Paul 2009: 768). ...
... Die Idee möglichst so aufzunehmen, wie der Mensch zu hören imstande ist, geht auf den US-amerikanischen Pionier der Psychoakustik Harvey Fletcher zurück (Paul 2009;Brech 2015). Vor etwa 100 Jahren entdeckten er und Leon Sivian im Zuge der Erforschung der Stereo-und Telefonie eine neue Aufnahmeoption (Paul 2009 Kunstkopf ', a term that was also adopted by Englishspeaking authors" (Paul 2009: 768). ...
... Der Wunsch nach binauralen Aufnahmen blieb wegen des technischen und finanziellen Aufwands lange Zeit der professionellen Studiotechnik vorbehalten. Ziel damaliger namhafter Mikrofonhersteller wie Philips (Niederlande), Schoeps (Deutschland) oder AKG (Österreich) war es, die Aufnahmekünste Oscars auch in kommerziellen Zwecken einzusetzen (Paul 2009 Der Kunstkopf wurde technisch über drei Generationen weiterentwickelt (Georg Neumann GmbH o. J.). ...
... V ušných kanáloch sú umiestňované mikrofóny História tohto princípu siaha až do počiatku 20. storočia[92], avšak možnosti využitia stále nie sú plnohodnotne docenené. Použitie binaurálnych nahrávok pri lokalizácii a separácii audio signálov je logickým, nakoľko jednokanálové a priestorové algoritmy BSS pracujú práve s charakteristikami, ktoré takáto nahrávka zvýrazňuje. ...
Individual sources create acoustic combinations, which can be highly correlated in time-frequency domain. This phenomenon can be found in the situation of two simultaneous speakers, or even more with musical sources. To separate these sources, we must employ advanced filtration technics, which are focused on the natural properties of musical instruments. Nowadays, many algorithms of conventional signal processing have been created for this type of task, as well as models of deep learning. When choosing the right technique, one must consider the form of application, for which the system will be intended. As with any proposed procedure, the performance of separation has to be evaluated. Nevertheless, a standard used objective evaluation does not have a meaningful correlation with human listening principles, moreover, they do not perform well in real acoustic scenarios. On the other hand, subjective evaluations are considered to be the most precise, however, standard procedures for listening tests of musical source separation do not exist.
This work is focused on blind, low latency filtration of musical sources, and the proposal of subjective methods for evaluation. Used combinations of multichannel and single-channel techniques work with high computational speed and may be implemented in real-time audio processing. In the first phase of work were used algorithms that meet our requirements in the separation of harmonic and percussive parts of songs. Subsequently, algorithms were evaluated by objective metrics and also listening tests. The output of the first phase was the selection of the most robust algorithms for one-channel harmonic separation and identification of subjective evaluation problems.
In the second phase, recording of vocal and percussive (and accompaniment) sources in different azimuth positions around the dummy head has been created. For isolation of these sources, Hybrid separation was used, consisting of a fusion of spatial and one-channel separation and also natural principles of human hearing mimics by a dummy head. Separated parts were evaluated objectively, and with the subjective methodology proposed in phase one. The output of phase two is finding the best combination of Hybrid separation algorithms and confirmation/rejection of subjective evaluation methods proposed in phase one.
... An artificial head (or a dummy head, or head and torso simulator) is a kind of a model made of specific materials and used to simulate the anatomical structures, such as the head, torso, and pinnae, of a real human from the perspective of acoustics (Vorlander, 2004;Paul, 2009). Its design is based on the average dimensional properties of certain populations or on the anatomical features of a "standard" or "typical" human subject. ...
... Binaural signals are recorded using an artificial head and presented by a pair of headphones. Since then, artificial head techniques, binaural recording, and reproduction have been developed greatly, as reviewed by Paul (2009) in detail. Binaural recording and reproduction had been seldom used in consumer reproduction for a long time because of incompatibilities with loudspeaker reproduction and other problems. ...
... von Mikrofon-Paaren an der Bühne aufgenommen und kabelgebunden über längere Distanzen an je zwei Telefonempfänger (Boren, 2017) übertragen, die sich die Zuhörer:innen an die Ohren hielten (Görne, 2015). Nicht nur die Schauspieler:innen und das Orchester waren dabei zu hören, auch die Reaktionen des Publikums waren Teil der Übertragung (Hawes, 1991 (Fletcher & Sivian, 1927;Paul, 2009 eine Schneiderpuppe mit dem Spitznamen "Oscar" (Paul, 2009). Die in Oscar untergebrachten 1,4-Zoll-Mikrofone waren zu groß für den menschlichen Gehörgang; daher wurden sie Seite 30 auf den Wangenknochen der Puppe direkt vor den Ohren angebracht (Boren, 2017 Oscar angebracht waren (Boren, 2017;Paul, 2009 (Arnold, 2013, 13:51-14:16) Der erste offene Kopfhörer kam nur wenige Jahre vor Einführung des Kunstkopfes auf den Markt: der HD 414 der Firma Sennheiser (Sennheiser, o. ...
... von Mikrofon-Paaren an der Bühne aufgenommen und kabelgebunden über längere Distanzen an je zwei Telefonempfänger (Boren, 2017) übertragen, die sich die Zuhörer:innen an die Ohren hielten (Görne, 2015). Nicht nur die Schauspieler:innen und das Orchester waren dabei zu hören, auch die Reaktionen des Publikums waren Teil der Übertragung (Hawes, 1991 (Fletcher & Sivian, 1927;Paul, 2009 eine Schneiderpuppe mit dem Spitznamen "Oscar" (Paul, 2009). Die in Oscar untergebrachten 1,4-Zoll-Mikrofone waren zu groß für den menschlichen Gehörgang; daher wurden sie Seite 30 auf den Wangenknochen der Puppe direkt vor den Ohren angebracht (Boren, 2017 Oscar angebracht waren (Boren, 2017;Paul, 2009 (Arnold, 2013, 13:51-14:16) Der erste offene Kopfhörer kam nur wenige Jahre vor Einführung des Kunstkopfes auf den Markt: der HD 414 der Firma Sennheiser (Sennheiser, o. ...
... Nicht nur die Schauspieler:innen und das Orchester waren dabei zu hören, auch die Reaktionen des Publikums waren Teil der Übertragung (Hawes, 1991 (Fletcher & Sivian, 1927;Paul, 2009 eine Schneiderpuppe mit dem Spitznamen "Oscar" (Paul, 2009). Die in Oscar untergebrachten 1,4-Zoll-Mikrofone waren zu groß für den menschlichen Gehörgang; daher wurden sie Seite 30 auf den Wangenknochen der Puppe direkt vor den Ohren angebracht (Boren, 2017 Oscar angebracht waren (Boren, 2017;Paul, 2009 (Arnold, 2013, 13:51-14:16) Der erste offene Kopfhörer kam nur wenige Jahre vor Einführung des Kunstkopfes auf den Markt: der HD 414 der Firma Sennheiser (Sennheiser, o. D.). ...
Task and object of investigation of this thesis was the sound design of a radio drama in a full-spherical loudspeaker system with the aim of achieving the effect of immersion. Since this is a system that is still hardly used and I am the first person at the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences to have made a production in such a setup, it was also necessary to discuss fundamental questions and make statements that are relevant to working in such a setup. Specifically, I designed and mixed two scenes from the radio play "Die drei ??? und das Dorf der Teufel" (The Three ??? and the Devil's Village) in a fully spherical Ambisonics system, which I defined as True Spatial. In order to be able to make specific statements about the production with this system and the perception of the sounds and tones produced, I also designed and mixed both scenes in 7.1.4. My work suggests that an extension to include the lower hemisphere is not necessary for immersion to be experienced as an effect, but that this extension nevertheless allows for an easier transition into the virtual world and promotes the feeling of being enveloped by this world. It also provides greater creative and artistic freedom and allows for new artificial room acoustics that can be used for true-to-life design and narration. The thesis suggests that for effective and purposeful use of full-spherical systems, further research is needed on lower acoustic perception as well as on the creative use of the lower hemisphere.
... Sound field reproduction can be divided into binaural sound field reproduction and large region sound field reproduction according to the size of the control area. Binaural sound field reproduction uses headphones or loudspeakers to reproduce the desired sound field in both ears [1][2][3][4] which can find applications in augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) products. It is essentially a virtual sound field reproduction method based on the perception characteristics of human ears. ...
Sound field control (SFC) technology enables the active management of audio delivered within an acoustical environment. It includes three research directions: sound field reproduction, personal audio systems, and active noise control. Sound field reproduction uses loudspeaker arrays to replicate a sound field in a target region; personal audio systems extend sound field reproduction over multiple regions so that different listeners can hear personalized audio in a shared space; and active noise control aims to cancel the original sound field in the target area by generating a secondary sound field. In this paper, we briefly review the advances of the three different types of techniques with a discussion of their algorithms and applications.
... Thus, we use Likert-type scoring methods from human subjects instead of measuring room acoustics. As mentioned by Otčenášek et al. [16], although multichannel or uncompressed audio and video transmissions over the network and high accuracy of perceived environment reproduction can be achieved [17], these conditions are not commonly met in practice due to a variety of constraints, including those related to environment settings or transmission chain. Accordingly, conditions such as room coupling or reproduction procedures, which may alter the perceived attributes of the sound source or environment, might still influence the transmitted sound in hybrid teaching and learning. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has posed significant challenges to all facets of education. As students are slowly repopulating university campuses after lockdowns and online learning, universities are looking into ways to ensure social distancing can be maintained in learning spaces and capitalize on the benefits of online-learning modalities without compromising educational quality. One option that has gained attention is hybrid or dual-delivery learning. In this model, some students are present in classrooms, while others join the class through online platforms. However, most university classrooms are not designed to deliver the voice of instructors and classroom students to online platforms. This change in modality requires universities to invest in infrastructure and technology. This research studies the optimum setup for dual-delivery classrooms, investigating a range of infrastructural and technology improvements that can be made to traditional classrooms to help optimize the perceived sound quality for remote learners. The investigation entails a qualitative study to assess the improvement in perceived sound quality (clarity, ability to recognize words, and perceived echo) for remote students visa -vis the improvement in the room (such as sound-absorbing padding or carpets) and its technology (such as ceiling and lapel microphones). Specifically, it investigates the degrees of room and the technology improvements needed to ensure that the voice of instructors and the classroom students' interactions, such as questions and discussions, are heard and comprehended by remote students. We collected responses for nine experiment conditions through 39 tests addressing both instruction and students' interactions. We formulate a matrix of recommendations for higher education institutions to follow. The suggestions proposed also have other environmental benefits beyond sound quality.
... We refer the reader to the literature such as [184,185] on binaural rendering, [122, Ch. 14] on loudspeaker panning, [25] on ambisonics, and [186] on wave field synthesis for more detailed discussions. Further overviews are provided in [2,17,18,187]. ...
The domain of spatial audio comprises methods for capturing, processing, and reproducing audio content that contains spatial information. Data-based methods are those that operate directly on the spatial information carried by audio signals. This is in contrast to model-based methods, which impose spatial information from, for example, metadata like the intended position of a source onto signals that are otherwise free of spatial information. Signal processing has traditionally been at the core of spatial audio systems, and it continues to play a very important role. The irruption of deep learning in many closely related fields has put the focus on the potential of learning-based approaches for the development of data-based spatial audio applications. This article reviews the most important application domains of data-based spatial audio including well-established methods that employ conventional signal processing while paying special attention to the most recent achievements that make use of machine learning. Our review is organized based on the topology of the spatial audio pipeline that consist in capture, processing/manipulation, and reproduction. The literature on the three stages of the pipeline is discussed, as well as on the spatial audio representations that are used to transmit the content between them, highlighting the key references and elaborating on the underlying concepts. We reflect on the literature based on a juxtaposition of the prerequisites that made machine learning successful in domains other than spatial audio with those that are found in the domain of spatial audio as of today. Based on this, we identify routes that may facilitate future advancement.
... The first wave considers the optimization of interaction in terms of the human factor in an engineered system. We could mention as an example the ergonomic, but generic, " one fits all" solutions of dummy-heads and binaural microphones for capturing acoustic scenes [110]. The second wave introduces a connection between man and machine in terms of information exchange, looking for similarities and common ground in decision-making processes, e.g. ...
The relationships between the listener, physical world and virtual environment (VE) should not only inspire the design of natural multimodal interfaces but should be discovered to make sense of the mediating action of VR technologies. This chapter aims to transform an archipelago of studies related to sonic interactions in virtual environments (SIVE) into a research field equipped with a first theoretical framework with an inclusive vision of the challenges to come: the egocentric perspective of the auditory digital twin. In a VE with immersive audio technologies implemented, the role of VR simulations must be enacted by a participatory exploration of sense-making in a network of human and non-human agents, called actors. The guardian of such locus of agency is the auditory digital twin that fosters intra-actions between humans and technology, dynamically and fluidly redefining all those configurations that are crucial for an immersive and coherent experience. The idea of entanglement theory is here mainly declined in an egocentric-spatial perspective related to emerging knowledge of the listener's perceptual capabilities. This is an actively transformative relation with the digital twin potentials to create movement, transparency, and provocative activities in VEs. The chapter contains an original theoretical perspective complemented by several bibliographical references and links to the other book chapters that have contributed significantly to the proposal presented here.
... Although transmissions of multichannel or uncompressed audio and video over the network and a high accuracy of reproduction of the perceived environment can be achieved (Paul, 2009;Hammershoi and Moler, 2005), these conditions are not commonly met in the practice of general remote musical lessons due to numerous constraints, including those related to settings of the environment or transmission chain. (1) The common services for internet conferencing and general purpose distance collaboration that are both popular and available for broad use, are optimized for low bandwidth and use lossy compression of the audio and video, signal filtration, dynamic range compression, or noise and echo suppression (Chen et al., 2012;Exarchakos et al., 2011;Xue and Lower, 2010). ...
One of the consequences of the pandemic is a transition to remote education and the use of network audiovisual communication tools for education in musical disciplines. The circumstances of such education can differ and might influence the perceived sound or the education. The research observes the ratings of perceived aspects in singing lessons taught in three settings (common, reference, and direct). A variance of several aspects that relate to the perceived sound (temporal qualities and qualities of the sound and room) is observed in the remote forms, suggesting that these can be impaired in some settings and significant in the experience. The findings are discussed in relation to the perceived conditions and present practice.
