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The 20 estates in Study 2 are shown, along with the urban areas established before 1970 and New Territories in Hong Kong. The New Territories feature nine transit-oriented development (TOD) new towns, which accommodate half of the population.
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![The aerial view of Tin Shui Wai in 2016 [26]. It is a typical Hong Kong...](publication/323868288/figure/fig2/AS:11431281210570421@1702056884731/The-aerial-view-of-Tin-Shui-Wai-in-2016-26-It-is-a-typical-Hong-Kong-new-town_Q320.jpg)
A sharp drop in physical activity and skyrocketing obesity rate has accompanied rapid urbanization in China. The urban planning concept of transit-oriented development (TOD) has been widely advocated in China to promote physical activity, especially walking. Indeed, many design features thought to promote walking-e.g., mixed land use, densification...
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... Our goal is to distinguish between various mobility preferences and requirements by highlighting how environmental and personal factors interact to transform resources into valuable capabilities. Unlike other similar studies that rely on survey data and are limited to a study area (He et al., 2016;Lu et al., 2018), our method, which applies computational models to multiple spatial datasets, can provide a more efficient regional overview of infrastructural provision, before commencing in-depth qualitative (e.g., interview, focus group) and quantitative (e.g., count survey and modeling) investigations for a specific area. The adoption of conversion factors can help planners identify the potential problems of each station area by factoring in the characteristics of the walking environment and the mobility capabilities of marginalized groups. ...
Transit-oriented development (TOD) aims to create pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods around transit hubs to improve urban mobility. However, it often overlooks the specific transportation needs of people with limited mobility. This study adopts Sen’s capabilities approach (CA) and the concept of conversion factors to analyze how ordinary pedestrians, the elderly, and wheelchair users transform planned catchment areas into functional capability spaces. Our focus is on understanding these conversion factors, which highlight both environmental and individual constraints when converting resources into capabilities. Our findings reveal significant disparities in walking environments between the initially planned and the realized catchment areas, as well as disparities between individuals with and without physical limitations. This study complements established quantitative methods, enhancing the application of the CA for evaluation. It provides a more precise assessment of pedestrian infrastructure and advocates for inclusive design improvements in the context of TOD cities and an aging population.
... However, a few exceptions can be found. Lu et al. (2018) provide a detailed description of how geography, in the form of street networks for recreational walking differs from old and new TOD neighbourhoods in Hong Kong. Meng et al. (2021) and Park et al. (2019) disclose the need for parks as places for recreational activities, an amenity that today is lacking, according to Meng et al. (2021). ...
... Deponte et al. argue for a move towards a 'site-specific planning paradigm', looking to existing medium-density settlements for development, rather than the dominant 'site-saving' paradigm of TOD, characterized by a high concentration of residents and services in a limited space (Deponte, Fossa, and Gorrini 2020, 137). Lu et al. (2018) call for a nuanced understanding and their analysis of TOD neighbourhoods in Hong Kong shows that spatial design and planning histories create fundamentally different opportunities for walking, though align with similar TOD principles. Lu et al. (2018) go further, discussing how the extensive TOD research from the US is difficult to compare to Chinese TODs, as scale, size and policy frameworks diverge greatly between these locations. ...
... Lu et al. (2018) call for a nuanced understanding and their analysis of TOD neighbourhoods in Hong Kong shows that spatial design and planning histories create fundamentally different opportunities for walking, though align with similar TOD principles. Lu et al. (2018) go further, discussing how the extensive TOD research from the US is difficult to compare to Chinese TODs, as scale, size and policy frameworks diverge greatly between these locations. An illustrative example can be found in Knowles (2012) analysis of Ørestad, a newly developed TOD in Copenhagen, Denmark. ...
Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a prominent planning model that connects sustainable mobilities with land use. While this interface is crucial for sustainable development, it also requires, we argue, that all typesof mobilities are considered. Therefore, this paper scrutinises how recreation and its mobilities have been studied within academic TOD literature. The review reveals a small number of studies of recreation, and by paying attention to their diverse geographical settings the scattered knowledge becomes even more apparent. Thereafter, to illustrate the consequences and situate our reading, we offer a place-based critique of the TOD planning in a Swedish city. The case captures how policies silence local resourcesfor recreation, not least by misinterpreting the modernist planning legacy. Finally, we argue that integrating recreation in the TOD model is as important as it is challenging: it requires a reconsideration of the urban ideal that TOD relies upon.
... In Hong Kong, most residential and work-related buildings are within 500 m of a station exit [15]. Most people prefer a 10-15-min walk from their home to the train or bus station but are willing to travel farther when returning home [6,16]. In the following targeted examples, the walking distance to the transit station ranges from 200 to 1,200 m, which is acceptable for Hong Kong people. ...
Transit-oriented development (TOD) tends to gather more people closer to the stations of public transportation. Frequently, the TOD model interfaces with the high-rise buildings to achieve high-density and mixed-use schemes. This chapter examines the relationship between high-rise buildings and TOD in Hong Kong.
Four types of the TOD model are identified: “plug-in” in the old city; city-edge; “one building” TOD; and suburban TOD in the new area. The main factors of TOD in these four types are presented and compared.
... The influence of density, the number of intersections, and the distance to transit were positive for pedestrian volume. But residents outside the range of the transit station were relatively less likely to walk for leisure [48]. The impact of local accessibility was not as strong as the local hub. ...
Improving urban walkability is critical to the long-term development of cities. Although previous studies have demonstrated a relationship between the built environment and walking, an approach that can control the exploration of different functional areas has not yet been discussed. In this study, built environment features include density, design, diversity, destination accessibility , and distance to transit. Geodetector and regression methods were used to investigate the impact of the built environmental features on pedestrian volume in different functional areas of Kumamoto City. It was found there were various dominant features for the different functional areas in the city, including the city center (diversity, design, and density), local hubs (destination accessibility, density, and distance to transit), living hubs (density, design, and distance to transit), UPA (diversity, design, and distance to transit), UCA (density, density, and design), and NPA (density). Additionally, population density and land use diversity in the overly dense population area were negatively related to pedestrian volume. This study complements research on pedestrians and the built environment in different functional areas, and provides advice for the urban planners and government of Kumamoto City.
... The new towns were built based on the concept of transit-oriented development, which makes public transit more accessible by walking (Chow, 2014). Lu et al. (2018) have recently corroborated that residents who live in new towns have shorter walking times for public transit compared to residents who live in the established urban centers. Therefore, it is not unexpected to see districts (e.g., Islands, Sha Tin, Yuen Long) with relatively low transit density appear to have high nodal accessibility since these districts usually have a huge presence of new towns. ...
Public transit is the main travel mode for residents in major urban areas to access different socioeconomic resources. Nodal accessibility can be used to measure the level of transit-based connectivity for residents from one neighborhood to socioeconomic resources in other neighborhoods. While many existing studies have measured the spatial inequality in nodal accessibility, few have comprehensively explored income-based inequality in nodal accessibility, especially between the richest and poorest of the population. This study examines the income-based inequality in nodal accessibility in Hong Kong using both the Gini coefficient and the 20:20 ratio. Our study shows that except Kowloon City, Sai Kung and Kwai Tsing, all districts suffer from some degree of inequality either among its middle-income residents or between its richest and poorest 20% residents. Besides, among all 18 districts, the poorest 20% living in Islands District not only have the lowest median monthly household income but also are most disadvantaged in terms of nodal accessibility compared to the richest 20% living in the same district. Overall, the results indicate that the Gini coefficient alone is inadequate in revealing the inequality between the richest and poorest of the population, while the 20:20 ratio can complement such inadequacy. Our results can inform policymakers to develop measures to alleviate income-based inequality in nodal accessibility.
... On the vertical plane, tall buildings around mass transit stations could denote the locations of transit nodes viewed from close up or far away. When they are placed strategically around mass-transit nodes, tall buildings create focal points on the skyline, improving the city's imageability and navigability [21][22][23]. ...
As the world moves toward becoming 70% urbanized by 2050, urban density becomes imperative in decisions on the urban environment and living quality. This paper builds on the polycentric and “rail village” development model that applies a “concentrated” density in strategic locations to create hyper-connected, socially vibrant hubs. Notably, it proposes the Tall Buildings and Transit-Oriented Development (TB-TOD) model, a type of development that refers to vertical mixed-use developments centered on mass transit nodes, as a sustainable option for large cities going forward. The key factors that promote the TB-TOD model are the efficient use of costly land, increased population density, boosted ridership, better regional connectivity, more sensible suburban growth, and improved placemaking. The paper examines the relationship between high-rise buildings and TOD in Hong Kong. The paper identifies and compares four types of TOD model, including “plug-in” TOD in the old city; city-edge TOD; “one building” TOD; and suburban TOD in the new area. Overall, this study documents urban design prototypes applicable to cities facing the challenges of high urban density and an excessive population.
... Hong Kong, a hybrid city, characterized by traditional compact urban neighborhoods in Kowloon and Hong Kong Island and transit-oriented new towns in the New Territories, comprises three major parts: Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, and the New Territories. Its urban developments that often achieved high density, mixed land-use, and gridiron street networks were built before WWII and concentrated in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon [10]. Hong Kong and Macao are famous for their developed economies in the world. ...
... In this paper, through establishing an ecological livability evaluation index system and comparing the livability score of GBA cities, we have found that Hong Kong and Macao are ecologically livable cities compared with geographically Hong Kong, a hybrid city, characterized by traditional compact urban neighborhoods in Kowloon and Hong Kong Island and transit-oriented new towns in the New Territories, comprises three major parts: Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, and the New Territories. Its urban developments that often achieved high density, mixed land-use, and gridiron street networks were built before WWII and concentrated in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon [10]. Hong Kong and Macao are famous for their developed economies in the world. ...
This paper proposes the “citizen-ecology-city” evaluation framework for urban ecological livability theoretically and studies the ecological livability of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA) empirically. In addition, we analyze the factors of urban ecological livability in a spatial dynamic panel model. The results are as follows. (1) Ecological livability levels of Macao and Hong Kong are significantly higher than the nine cities in the PRD; (2) Shenzhen and Guangzhou lead the nine cities in the PRD, while Jiangmen and Zhaoqing perform poorly; (3) GBA cities can be divided into three categories: Macao, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the first tier; Zhuhai, Foshan, and Dongguan in the second tier; Huizhou, Zhongshan, Jiangmen, and Zhaoqing in the third tier; and (4) The ecological livability of the GBA cities has a characteristic of spatial correlation. In terms of the international value, the three-dimensional evaluation framework can apply to other bay areas in the world.
... They could reach one building and one activity to another by only walking distance within the area. Lu et al. [10] underlined that the need to walk for the local community would encourage people to do more physical activity, mainly walking; many design features promote walking such as mixed land use, densifying, and well-connected street networks district. Thus Lu et al. [10] also agreed that TOD's concept has similar activity benefits as established urban neighborhoods. ...
... Lu et al. [10] underlined that the need to walk for the local community would encourage people to do more physical activity, mainly walking; many design features promote walking such as mixed land use, densifying, and well-connected street networks district. Thus Lu et al. [10] also agreed that TOD's concept has similar activity benefits as established urban neighborhoods. ...
This research aimed to propose a new concept for a historical area in Jakarta known as Kota Tua Jakarta by delivering a concept of Transit-Oriented Development to enhance the environment’s quality. The idea of TOD itself has been regarded as a perfect solution for a metropolitan city such as Jakarta, which has a relatively large population. As second-year research, this research has been developed from the first-year research that has conducted some ideas from precedent studies of historical areas. Using the eight principles of TOD (cycling, walking, transiting, connecting, shifting, connecting, densifying, and compacting), authors have concluded some results and proposed a design to be implemented within Kota Tua Jakarta. Authors have conducted a qualitative method with observation and mapping analysis to deliver a relevant result. The result will implicate urban planners and architects in providing good design and excellent planning for Indonesia’s historical site and Kota Tua Jakarta, particularly.
... As mentioned, most residential and office towers and shopping malls in Hong Kong are within a 500 m radius of the station. A walking distance of 10 min from home to rail station or bus stop for commuting is acceptable to most people, and a longer distance is acceptable when returning home after work (Yin 2014;Lu et al. 2018). The rail villages in the following cases have a catchment radius ranging from 300 to 1200 m, which is generally acceptable to the local residents and workers. ...
... In Hong Kong, the building clusters around the rail stations are generated by commercial interests and end-users' behavior and acceptance (Lu et al. 2018). Based on the preceding literature review and the situations in other countries, we examine the practice and built environment in Hong Kong to answer the questions raised in the last session, which few studies have yet sought to answer. ...
Since the concept was first introduced in the 1970s, transit-oriented development (TOD) has greatly expanded in East Asian cities such as Hong Kong. Rail stations are built together with clusters of residential–commercial towers and government services to form a new style of living—a ‘rail village.’ After investigation of many metro stations and its rail villages, the authors examine the composition, scale, spatial form, organization and operation of several typical rail villages in Hong Kong. The cases range across those planned from the mid-1990s to the Twenty-first century. Based on the analysis of the rail village composition, the paper derives a development ratio to indicate the density, effectiveness and efficiency of a rail village catchment area. The ratio provides a useful and direct indicator for the comparison of different stations, cities and development modes. The paper discusses the design factors related to density and diversity of rail villages. This paper supplements the existing TOD study by highlighting the density problem and examining its relevant design and planning issues.
... The urban center is an area that contains a diversity of public goods and services, social opportunities for individuals and groups, and employment opportunities. Similarly, easy access to an MTR station allows public housing residents access to a wide variety of activities that require citywide transport, such as employment, recreation, entertainment, and medical treatment (Lu et al., 2018a). In so far as the distance to the nearest urban center is an indicator of how many public goods, services, and other resources residents can access within an urban district, the distance to the nearest MTR station is an indicator of how many public goods, services, and other resources residents can easily access across the city. ...
Suicide is a global challenge. Although it is clear that socioeconomic and demographic factors influence suicide rates, we know little about the impacts of the built environment on suicide rates.
We investigated the relationship between characteristics of the built environment and suicide death rates over a 13-year period in 151 rent-only public housing communities in Hong Kong. The regulations of the public housing authority in Hong Kong constituted a natural experiment with minimal self-selection bias. We conducted hierarchical regression analyses and found that characteristics of the built environment were significantly associated with suicide rates after controlling for SES and demographic factors at the community level.
Three significant environmental factors were identified distance to the nearest urban center, distance to the nearest Mass Transit Railway station, and gross flat area per person.
These findings demonstrate a significant association between features of the built environment and suicide rates. They also suggest possible interventions that might reduce suicide through design, or redesign, of the built environment. Lastly, we propose an environmental theory of suicide based on the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide.
