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Test-Retest Reliability, Criterion Validity, and Construct Validity of Game and Television Violence Exposure Measures Construct validity b
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This study evaluated whether common self-report measures of television and game violence exposure represent reliable and valid measurement tools. Three self-report measures – direct estimates, user-rated favorites, and agency-rated favorites – were assessed in terms of test-retest reliability, criterion validity (their relationship with coded media...
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... upper panel of Table 1 presents the correlation coefficients and 95% confidence intervals for the measures of game violence exposure. The direct estimates of game violence exposure achieved test-retest reliability (tau = .52, ...
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... They also correlate highly with each other (e. g., Busching et al., 2015;Dogruel & Joeckel, 2013;Przybylski & Weinstein, 2019) and with self-report estimates (Fikkers et al., 2017). The Common Sense Media rating was chosen because it contains a scale focused solely on VVG, whereas age ratings usually take into account other non-violent aspects (e.g., nudity, abusive language, drugs). ...
The associations between exposure to violent video games (VVG) and aggression/empathy have been extensively studied. VVG are often depicted as triggers for increased aggression and decreased empathy in line with the General Aggression Model. However, longitudinal evidence that distinguishes within- and between-person effects and focuses on various dimensions of aggression/empathy remains scarce. Drawing on representative sample of 3010 Czech adolescents (aged 13–17), data were collected over four waves to measure physical and verbal aggression, and cognitive and affective empathy. VVG was evaluated based on open-ended responses. A random-intercept cross-lagged panel model was employed to differentiate within- and between-person associations. VVG positively correlated with cognitive empathy, verbal aggression, and physical aggression at the between-person level. At the within-person level, two hypotheses were examined: the selection effect (effects of changes in aggression/empathy on changes in VVG) and the desensitization effect (effects of changes in VVG on alterations in aggression/empathy). All desensitization effects were statistically insignificant. Regarding selection effects, an increase in affective empathy was linked to a decrease in VVG. Conversely, an increase in physical aggression was associated with an increase in VVG, both positively and negatively, depending on the wave of data collection. Furthermore, the moderation effects of age and gender were tested at the within-person level. The positive (but not negative) effect of physical aggression on exposure to VVG was moderated by age, with a stronger effect evident among younger participants. These findings challenge the portrayal of VVG as a significant contributor to heightened aggression and decreased empathy in adolescents.
... Competitive video game exposure To measure CVGE, participants listed their three favorite games, and rated how frequently they played each game (1 = sometimes to 5 = very often), and rated how competitive each game was (1 = not at all to 5 = very much). This self-report measure has been shown to be both reliable and valid (Fikkers et al., 2017), and successfully used in many previous studies (Dowsett, 2017;Teng et al., 2019). Game competition scores were computed by multiplying the competition ratings by the frequency ratings. ...
It is widely known controversies about the results of violent video game increase aggression. However, the role of competitive video games, has received less research attention, and the underlying mechanisms of their influence are unknown. This study aimed to expand the existing literature by systematically exploring the effects of competitive video game exposure on adolescent aggression and the mediating role of impulsivity. In so doing, three types of studies (collectively N = 2919, mean age varied from 13.75 to 15.44 years, with a balanced gender) combining cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal approaches, were conducted. The findings consistently show that competitive video game exposure increased adolescents’ aggression and impulsivity. Also, impulsivity mediated the correlation and long-term effect of competitive video game exposure on aggression. However, the experimental study did not confirm the short-term mediating effect of impulsivity, which may be related to the type of aggression measured in the study. The results indicate that competitive video game exposure is an important antecedent factor for adolescent aggression, and impulsivity is the key underlying mechanism.
... Finally, we acknowledge that having participants rate each listed media title may underestimate the violence rating if the participants are desensitized, which has been shown to mediate the relationship between media violence and aggression (Engelhardt et al., 2011). However, research has shown that user-rated favorites are just as reliable and valid as agency-rated estimates (Fikkers et al., 2017). Moreover, research has shown strong correlations between user-rated, expert-rated, and Entertainment Software Rating Board-rated video game violence estimates (Busching et al., 2015). ...
A recent burgeoning of research has examined the relationship between media violence exposure and cyberbullying perpetration. Some findings indicate the relationship between these two variables is best explained with a direct effect; whereas other findings indicate an indirect effect through aggression-related constructs best describes this relationship. No published study that we are aware of has pitted the direct and indirect hypotheses against each other, which is the purpose of the current study. Participants (N = 129 U.S. emerging adults) completed questionnaires to measure media violence, cyberbullying perpetration, trait physical and verbal aggression, normative aggressive beliefs, and aggressive attitudes. Results showed support for the indirect effect, by demonstrating (a) the significant correlation between media violence and cyberbullying was rendered nonsignificant while controlling for aggression variables and (b) the indirect effect was significant when controlling for the intercorrelations between the media violence and aggression variables. Overall, the results suggest an indirect effect better explains the relationship between media violence exposure and cyberbullying perpetration.
... These independent ratings (e.g., ESRB, PEGI) are often recommended (e.g., Drummond et al., 2020) because they are more reliable and valid than self-report assessments of violence (Ferguson, 2011). They also correlate highly with each other (e.g., Busching et al., 2013;Dogruel & Joeckel, 2013;Przybylski & Weinstein, 2019) and with self-report estimates (Fikkers et al., 2017). We chose the Common Sense Media rating because it contains a scale focused solely on VVG, whereas age ratings usually take into account other non-violent aspects (e.g., nudity, abusive language, drugs). ...
The associations between exposure to violent video games (VVG) and aggression/empathy have been extensively studied. VVG are often depicted as triggers for increased aggression and decreased empathy in line with the General Aggression Model. However, longitudinal evidence that distinguishes within- and between-person effects and focuses on various dimensions of aggression/empathy remains scarce. Drawing on representative sample of 3,010 Czech adolescents (aged 13-17), data were collected over four waves to measure physical and verbal aggression, and cognitive and affective empathy. VVG was evaluated based on open-ended responses. A random-intercept cross-lagged panel model was employed to differentiate within- and between-person associations. VVG positively correlated with cognitive empathy, verbal aggression, and physical aggression at the between-person level. At the within-person level, two hypotheses were examined: the selection effect (effects of changes in aggression/empathy on changes in VVG) and the desensitization effect (effects of changes in VVG on alterations in aggression/empathy). All desensitization effects were statistically insignificant. Regarding selection effects, an increase in affective empathy was linked to a decrease in VVG. Conversely, an increase in physical aggression was associated with an increase in VVG, both positively and negatively, depending on the wave of data collection. Furthermore, the moderation effects of age and gender were tested at the within-person level. The positive (but not negative) effect of physical aggression on exposure to VVG was moderated by age, with a stronger effect evident among younger participants. These findings challenge the portrayal of VVG as a significant contributor to heightened aggression and decreased empathy in adolescents.
... The average score of these three video games was used to measure the exposure to violent video games. This measurement method has been widely used in previous studies (Anderson and Dill, 2000;Fikkers et al., 2017), including those conducted among Chinese adolescents (Teng et al., 2017;Teng et al., 2019). For the scores of the three video games, the internal consistency coefficient was 0.760. ...
The present study aimed to investigate the current situation of internet gaming disorder (IGD) in Chinese adolescents and explore the impact of IGD-related factors on adolescent aggression. We hypothesized that IGD symptoms in adolescents would be associated with aggressive behavior and that risk factors for IGD symptoms could increase the aggressive tendencies of adolescents. To verify the above hypothesis, a cross-sectional survey of junior and senior high school students from southern, southwestern, central, and eastern China was conducted.
A total of 9306 valid questionnaires were collected. The results showed that the prevalence of IGD symptoms was 1.78 % among Chinese adolescents. The adolescents in the disordered gamer group had the most severe IGD symptoms, with the highest levels of psychological distress and aggression. Interestingly, adolescents in the casual gamer group had the lowest psychological distress and aggression scores. Linear regression analysis further showed that higher levels of aggression were significantly associated with male sex, younger age, more severe sychological distress and IGD symptoms, and more violent game exposure. Our results suggested that excessive online gaming not only contributes to psychological distress in adolescents but also increases their levels of aggressive behavior. Apart from male sex and younger age, severe IGD symptoms and psychological distress are the most important predictors of the development of aggressive behavior.
... Violent video game experience was calculated using the formula: Σ [degree of violence of game content × (frequency of playing games on weekdays × 5 + frequency of playing games on weekends × 2)/7]/3 [53]. Previous studies have demonstrated the validity and reliability of this self-report measure of violent game exposure [54]. This method of measuring has been extensively employed in earlier studies, including those conducted in China [5,55,56]. ...
Previous research on factors affecting video game player aggression has mainly reflected on the violent content of video games; in recent years, some researchers have focused on competitive factors in video games. However, little research has examined the sole impacts of competitive factors in video games without violent content on aggression, and the neurological processes of these effects are still unknown. The present study was the first to examine the electrophysiological characteristics of short-term competitive video game exposure and aggression. Thirty-five participants played a video game in either competitive or solo mode for 15 min, followed by an ERP experiment based on the oddball paradigm and the hot sauce paradigm to measure aggressive behavior. Results showed that playing competitive game mode was associated with faster judgment of aggressive words, larger P300 amplitudes, and selection of more chili powder than in solo mode. Mediation analysis further revealed that the P300 amplitude evoked by the aggressive words partially mediated the relationship between competitive game exposure and aggressive behavior. These findings support the general aggression model. However, this study has limitations, such as a single form of competitive game examined and single blindness, which need further improvement in future studies.
... Before arriving in the laboratory, all subjects completed an online questionnaire that inquired directly about their media consumption habits (Fikkers et al., 2017). Subjects were asked how often they consumed (a) television shows, movies, or websites; (b) video games; and (c) news programs or stories "showing violence, such as physical fighting, hurting, shooting, or killing." ...
Several decades of research have explored the links between exposure to violent entertainment media and subsequent aggression. However, there has been little research on the effects of exposure to images of real-life violence. In the present study, participants viewed either a video portraying acts of real violence, fictional violence, or a nonviolent video. After watching the video, mild aggressive behavior was assessed using the competitive reaction-time task. In 11 of the 17 preregistered measures, participants who viewed scenes of real-life violence exhibited lower levels of mild aggressive behavior compared to participants who viewed scenes of fictional violence from films and television shows. However, these effects were consistently small. The results suggest that exposure to images of real-life violence in the media may have a small inhibition effect on mild aggressive behavior in some contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Violent video game experience was calculated using the formula: Ʃ [degree of violence of game content × (frequency of playing games on weekdays × 5 + frequency of playing games on weekends × 2)/7]/3 [53]. Previous studies have demonstrated the validity and reliability of this self-report measure of violent game exposure [54]. This method of measuring has been extensively employed in earlier studies, including those conducted in China [5,55,56]. ...
Previous research on video game player aggression has focused on violent content, while recent studies have examined competitive factors. Few research has examined the solely impacts of competitive factors in video games without violent content on aggression, and it is still unknown what neurological processes of these effects. The present study is the first to examine the the electrophysiological characteristics of short-term competitive video game exposure and aggression. Thirty-five participants played a video game in either competitive or solo mode for 15 minutes, followed by an ERP experiment based on the Oddball paradigm and the hot sauce paradigm to measure aggressive behavior. Results showed that playing competitive game mode was associated with faster judgment to aggressive words, larger P300 amplitudes, and selection of more chili powder. The P300 amplitude partially mediated the relationship between competitive game exposure and aggressive behavior. These findings support the general aggression model.
... Using a 5-point score, the degree of exposure to violent video games = amount of exposure = ∑ [violent content × frequency of using games]/3; the higher the score, the more exposure to violent video games. The violent video game exposure questionnaire has been shown to be both reliable and valid [52]. In this study, Cronbach's α was 0.87. ...
Based on problem behavior theory, a mediation model for gender and grade differences is explored in this study. The study examined gender and grade differences in the effects of violent video games and deviant peer affiliation on problem behaviors among children and adolescents. A total of 2118 children and adolescents from four primary and middle schools in China (M age = 13.08, SD = 2.17) were surveyed using an anonymous questionnaire on basic information, exposure to violent video games, deviant peer affiliation, and problem behaviors. The results showed that exposure to violent video games significantly positively predicted problem behaviors, and deviant peer affiliation played a mediating role. Significant gender and grade differences were found in the mediating effect. This finding helps understand the individual differences in the influencing factors of problem behaviors. Further, it has important implications for interventions to reduce problem behaviors among children and adolescents.
... Not relying on respondents to rate the violence in video games but rather using independent ratings such as scholars or ratings boards (e.g., ESRB, PEGI). Such measures have been found to be valid indices of potentially objectionable content when compared to the ratings of trained, blinded raters and correlate highly with other approaches and demonstrate good construct validity (Fikkers et al., 2017). Applicable to correlational/Longitudinal studies only. ...
Whether video games with sexualized content do or do not relate to mental health and body image problems in players, and/or sexualization and hostility toward women, is an issue of broad public interest. However, evidence from empirical studies has generally been mixed. To examine this issue, we explored the degree to which sexualization in games was related to both well-being/body dissatisfaction and sexism/misogyny among players in two separate meta-analyses. Results revealed that sexualization in games was neither related to well-being/body dissatisfaction (r = 0.082, k = 10, n = 2,010, p = .066) nor sexism/misogyny (r = 0.040, k = 15, n = 15,938, p = .070). Better designed studies, and those that showed less evidence for researcher expectancy effects (for sexism/misogyny outcomes), tended to find less evidence for effects. As appears commonly in other realms of media effects, the evidence is weak that sexualized games influence player attitudes and behavior.
