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Temporary labour migration rate (migrants per 1000 population) according to educational attainment and caste groups in major states (ageÁgroup 15Á64 years), India, 2007Á08.
Source publication
Temporary labour migration has rarely been studied at macro level despite its high prevalence in India. Drawing from the recently available Indian National Sample Survey (2007–08), this paper aims to study the basic differentials between temporary and permanent labour migration at the national level and examines the socioeconomic determinants of te...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... the other hand, temporary labour migration rate in urban areas is very low across all the MPCE quintiles with less variation except the high migration rates in the lowest and lower quintiles of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh (Table 3). Table 4 presents the temporary labour migration rate by educational attainment and caste categories. The highest propensity to migrate temporarily is observed among persons with below primary education. ...
Citations
... In-country migration can be temporary, longer term, or permanent. Temporary migration is a more common risk-coping strategy for the rural poor, and much bigger in size in developing economies, yet largely under-researched (Coffey et al., 2014;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013;Khandker & Mahmud 2012;Lucas, 2015;Sucharita 2020). In fact, temporary migration often remains 'invisible' in poverty economics, as it is seldom properly accounted for in household surveys and censuses due to its transient nature. ...
... Existing studies on the determinants and effects of migration mostly focus on longer-term migration, which differs from temporary migration in many ways (Chen et al., 2019;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013;Shahriar et al., 2006). For example, while neoclassical theories of migration predict that the rural poor would migrate to urban areas with higher mean wages, in Bangladesh, majority of temporary migrants migrate to other rural areas to work in agriculture (Meghir et al., 2022), although mean wages in urban areas are almost twice as high as those in the countryside (Lagakos et al., 2023). ...
... Several studies have analyzed determinants of temporary migration (Asefawu & Nedessa, 2022;Dodd et al., 2016;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013;Shahriar et al., 2006;Sucharita, 2020), and a few have also looked at effects (Bryan et al., 2014;de Brauw & Harigaya, 2007;Gibson & McKenzie, 2014;. However, these studies mainly compare temporary migration with non-migration, leaving a conceptual gap in understanding the choice of temporary migration as opposed to longer-term migration, which is also important to comprehend the behavior and effects of migration (Chen et al., 2019). ...
Temporary migration is a widely observed phenomenon among poor rural households, mostly related to agricultural seasonality. However, household preferences for temporary migration in comparison to longer-term migration, and the differential effects of these migrations on household livelihoods are not yet well understood. Here, we use survey data collected in northern rural Bangladesh to analyze determinants of households’ choice between temporary and longer-term migration, and their comparative effects on various livelihood indicators, with a particular focus on agricultural lean periods. Issues of selection bias and endogeneity are addressed with Heckman selection models and instrumental variables. We show that temporary migration is more common than longer-term migration, partly determined by family demographic and farm-labor constraints. Although longer-term migration has larger positive effects on household income, temporary migration has larger positive effects on food consumption and dietary quality during lean periods. These results suggest that temporary migration is an important mechanism for the rural poor to smooth consumption and deserves more attention from researchers and policy-makers.
... So, illiteracy is one of the significant determinants of out-migration (Sundari & Rukmani, 1998;Kaur et al., 2011). Similarly, the respondents having higher literacy demand higher income and higher salaries, and they try to move to another place from the origin (Ali, 2007;Sridhar et al., 2013;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013). ...
The present paper investigates empirical evidence of socio-economic determinants of rural out-migration in the Koch Bihar district in India. Data were collected from primary sources, from the 12 community development (CD) blocks. We found around 68.3% (N = 272) were overall migrants and 31.7% (N = 126) were non-migrant respondents. This is important that around 60.3% (N = 164) of the respondents out-migrated due to work or unemployment. The study shows males (87.5%) are more migrating than the female population (12.5%) due to unemployment reasons. This out-migration job has been termed a survival strategy for rural people. We observed that the majority of respondents near the Indo-Bangladesh border decided to out-migrate due to the unavailability of work opportunities. The chi-square test (p < 0.00) and Cramer’s V (0.469) test were used to find out for the determination of rural out-migration. For examining the reason for rural out-migration, the “logistic regression model” explained between 56.3% (Cox and Snell R square) and 78.9% (Nagelkerke R square) in the variation of the migrant status (migrant = 1, non-migrant = 0) and correctly classified 93.5% of cases. The complete model containing predictors age (OR = 0.154, p < 0.05), gender (OR = 3.869, p < 0.00), BPL status (OR = 0.023, p < 0.05), social groups (for scheduled caste OR = 6.158, p < 0.05; scheduled tribe OR = 0.096, p < 0.00), place of birth (OR = 0.010, p < 0.00), types of the family (OR = 0.137, p < 0.00), literacy (higher secondary OR = 0.066, p < 0.05), availability of agricultural land (OR = 0.400, p < 0.05), monthly income (Rs. <5000, OR = 74.852, p < 0.05), and monthly expenditure (Rs. 5000–7000, OR = 22.324, p < 0.05) was statistically significant, indicating that the model distinguished between respondents who reported and did not report they migrated.
... Agriculture sector dependence is higher among marginalized communities than other groups due to their isolated forms of living and limited access to education. In addition, short-term labour migration has been witnessed among marginalized communities resulting from loss of output in the agriculture sector due to climate change (Keshri and Bhagat 2013;Pradhan and Narayanan 2020). ...
This paper aims to assess the disparities in vulnerability to climate change among the rural and urban population by taking the case of Madhya Pradesh, the central state of India. Madhya Pradesh is highly exposed to climate change, as evident by the historical and projected changes in climatic parameters. The impacts of climate change vary as per the dependence of the population on natural resource-intensive sectors and the relative socioeconomic development. The higher disparities in population composition, livelihood, infrastructural access, and other socioeconomic characteristics among rural and urban populations can influence their relative vulnerability to climate change. In this context, this study tries to understand how the spatiotemporal pattern of vulnerability to climate change differs in the rural and urban areas in three decades (1991, 2001 and 2011), using two sub-indices viz. Composite Social Vulnerability Index (CSVI) and Climate Index (CI). The CSVI is a weighted average of the Socioeconomic Vulnerability Index and Infrastructural Vulnerability Index. The CSVI is a weighted average of the Socioeconomic Vulnerability Index and Infrastructural Vulnerability Index. The results indicate that rural areas possess more social vulnerability than urban areas and, thus, are more vulnerable to climate change. CSVI scores and score of its subindices have reduced over time for both rural and urban population. However, the overall climate vulnerability has slightly increased from 2001 to 2011 due to the increase in mean CI in 2011. The study points out more targeted interventions for livelihood diversification, education, and infrastructural facilities in rural areas, especially in tribal dominated districts, in the context of increased climate change exposure in recent decades.
... Furthermore, many of those who migrate do so to remain with family members (often spouses) who more often than not have migrated for work. Migration patterns are often not unidirectional but rather temporary, circular, and/or seasonal: characterised by sporadic spells of migration interspersed with agricultural work and other labour in rural home areas according to different seasons and circumstances (Keshri and Bhagat, 2013;Srivastava, 2020a). Other studies also point to the footloose nature of labour migration as workers often move from place to place and job to job in search of the right mix of wages, conditions, cultural affinity, and accommodation (Triandafyllidou, 2022). ...
This article analyses research findings from the PROWELLMIGRANTS project which qualitatively investigated the impact of COVID‐19 upon migrants’ wellbeing and mental health in Kerala, India. It draws from a novel conceptual framework that combines assemblage‐thinking with theories of social contracts in disasters. The article first explores how past development processes and contemporary migration policies in Kerala, and India more widely, generated conditions of vulnerability for migrant workers in Kerala prior to the pandemic. We then show that Government of Kerala interventions, in some cases supported by the central Government of India, temporarily addressed these vulnerabilities during the pandemic period. These efforts should be applauded. However, in acknowledging the helpful response of the Government of Kerala we problematise their stance on migrant workers during ‘normal’ times and speculate that permanently addressing these conditions of vulnerability would be a more logical approach. We acknowledge this involves overcoming many barriers which have their roots beyond the jurisdiction of the Government of Kerala. Thus, our paper also contains national‐level policy implications for India.
... The data on migration flows contains both permanent (e.g., skilled or family migration) and temporary migration (e.g., temporary work, students). The rationale for including both is the following: according to Keshri and Bhagat (2013), in contrast to permanent migration, temporary migration is often a way of improving living conditions by moving to a more developed region or country. On top of this, there are greater legal barriers to permanent migration, which makes temporary migration a more accessible alternative. ...
We explore the impact of institutional factors on bilateral migration among the EU, CIS, and the US by applying the gravity model of migration. We employ instrumental variables methodology (IV-PPML, IV-GMM) and a non-linear estimation approach (NLS) to test our assumptions about the spurring effect of institutional indicators on migration. Empirical results demonstrate a significantly positive effect of economic development and legislative system on migration flows in the sample countries. However, we find that government regulation and political stability decrease migration. We also find that Russia attracts CIS migrants due to cultural and institutional reasons, while the EU and the US accommodate migration due to economic reasons. The crucial role of institutional development as a determinant of international migration is often overlooked in contemporary literature. We generate new insight into the contribution of control for corruption and law, governmental regulation, political stability and democracy, and ease of doing business to migration. Based on the results, we provide some policy implications.
... linking it with development, researchers generally do not make a distinction between long-term migration, which could take the form of permanent or semi-permanent migration, and short-term migration of a temporary and circulatory nature. We have been arguing that this distinction is important to understand the livelihood strategy of rural masses (Bhagat and Keshri, 2020;Keshri and Bhagat, 2013;Kumar and Bhagat, 2017). It is likely that with the increasing duration of migration, a person's economic status not only becomes better, but they are also absorbed in urban areas as a permanent migrant, whereas temporary circulatory migrants keep on shuttling between the place of origin and the place of destination. ...
... However, it is to be noted that the census data are deficient in capturing short-term temporary and circulatory labour migration, which consists of a larger proportion of labour migrants in India. For instance, a study based on the NSS data found that the incidence of annual temporary labour migration is seven times higher than that of permanent labour migration (Keshri and Bhagat, 2013). Therefore, the arguments for lower mobility in India are deceptive. ...
... These results suggest that temporary and circulatory labour migration is a livelihood strategy for millions of poor and socially marginalized households in India. Compared to this form of migration, long-term migration of a permanent and semipermanent nature is mainly resorted to by relatively better-off and more educated households (Bhagat, 2010;Keshri and Bhagat, 2013). ...
Background
Migration has been an important determinant of population change associated with demographic transition, urbanization, and economic development. It has a unique ability to transform the size, distribution, and composition of national populations. Zelinsky (1971) has successfully linked the different stages of demographic transition with the level and direction of migration known as mobility transition. Recent studies have also established that when an increasing number of developing countries reach the advanced stages of demographic transition, there would be a concomitant increase in the impact of migration on the settlement systems of those countries (Charles-Edwards et al., 2020; King, 2012).
In developing countries, migration is mostly governed by the level of economic development of a region. In some countries like India, internal migration is predominantly seen in the form of interstate movement, which is generally propelled by two factors: uneven economic development and variations in the demographic transition of states (Srivastava et al., 2020). In reality, however, the incidence of intrastate migration is several times higher than that of interstate migration (Bhagat and Keshri, 2020). It is important, however, to emphasize that irrespective of migration being intrastate or interstate, it is inevitably a significant livelihood strategy adopted by a major section of the Indian population. While studying migration and linking it with development, researchers generally do not make a distinction between long-term migration, which could take the form of permanent or semi-permanent migration, and short-term migration of a temporary and circulatory nature. We have been arguing that this distinction is important to understand the livelihood strategy of rural masses (Bhagat and Keshri, 2020; Keshri and Bhagat, 2013; Kumar and Bhagat, 2017). It is likely that with the increasing duration of migration, a person's economic status not only becomes better, but they are also absorbed in urban areas as a permanent migrant, whereas temporary circulatory migrants keep on shuttling between the place of origin and the place of destination.
The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic and the ensuing migration crisis has highlighted the poor understanding on the part of government agencies, which till recently had no clue of the real number of migrants and migrant labour staying in different parts of the country (Bhagat et al., 2020). There is a need to provide researchers and policymakers with some recent evidence of migration and its associated factors.
... Due to the irregular rhythm of economic activity throughout the year, which alternates between peak and slack periods, and the open-air nature of the production process, which necessitates a work to stop with the arrival of the monsoon, this type of labour mobility is seasonal. [4]. This study focuses on the distress seasonal migration of children. ...
The intent of this study is to concentrate on the rising rate of migration among tribal children in the Dungrpur District. Migration of children for labour has been an increasing cause of concern. Both primary and secondary data have been used at the level of villages to highlight the problem at hand. Migration, which accounts of 56 percent of the aggregate income in this area, is the main source of income for households. Tribes and non-tribe people migrate from the district in search of employment because it seems impoverished. In this paper looks at the circumstances surrounding the migration of children into the district's rural areas for work. Additionally, the locations of migrants' final destinations, their working environments, and the challenges that these migrants' children encounter with their schooling were highlighted. Results from primary and secondary sources comes out that in search of employment in the BT cotton fields, brick manufacturing, construction, hotels, Dhabas, and tea-stoles. Numerous individuals physically and mentally harass them at their place of employment. At destinations, these children become extremely vulnerable. They experience numerous illnesses as children and lose their childhood without any fun. This issue is so serious that the government wants to implement some measures to stop this kind of migration in the Dungarpur district.
... Internal labour migration has remained inevitable despite the recent impact of globalization and enhancement of transport facilities between countries. It is entrenched that temporary labour migration is one of the most significant livelihood strategies adopted by the poorest sections in developing countries including India (Rajan, 2020a, b;Keshri & Bhagat, 2012;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013). Several village-level studies have established that temporary labour migration is rural in nature and caste is one of the important determining factors as far as rural areas are concerned, however we do not find any recent study which has attempted to understand temporary labour migration through a caste lens at the national level. ...
Temporary labour migration is known to be one of the most important livelihood options used by the poorest sectors of society in a variety of contexts, in developing countries, including India. Using large-scale data from the Indian National Sample Survey, 2007–2008, this chapter tries to explain the structure and flow of temporary labour migration, and its relationship with caste. The results suggest that the highest share of temporary labour migrants is found among rural to urban migrants (63%), and that there is a dominance of inter-state migration, particularly from the under-developed states of Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh. Our analysis corroborates earlier studies and shows that temporary labour migration rates are higher at the national level among the most disadvantaged social groups, namely the Scheduled Tribes (STs) and the Scheduled Castes (SCs) (45 and 24 per 1000 respectively) compared to Other Backward Classes (19 per 1000) and Others (12 per 1000). Our analysis shows that temporary labour migration rates were twice as high among the poorest of the poor as any other caste group. The findings point to a strong link between caste and temporary migration in India.
... As the foremost motive behind migration is employment, several theories have been put forwarded to understand the diverse economic, geographical and social factors behind this (Harris & Todaro, 1970;Massey et al., 1993;Todaro, 1976). It is well established that temporary labour migration is one of the most significant livelihood strategies adopted by the poorest sections of the society across a variety of developing country contexts, including India (Rajan, 2011;Asfaw et al., 2010;Brauw, 2007;Deshingkar & Grimm, 2005;Ha et al., 2009;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013;Lam et al., 2007;Pham & Hill, 2008). It has been given various nomenclatures, for instance, circular migration, short-term migration and seasonal migration (Rajan & Sumeetha, 2020;Coffey et al., 2015;Deshingkar & Farrington, 2009;Haberfeld et al., 1999;Hugo, 1982). ...
... Internal labour migration has remained inevitable despite the recent impact of globalization and enhancement of transport facilities between countries. It is entrenched that temporary labour migration is one of the most significant livelihood strategies adopted by the poorest sections in developing countries including India (Rajan, 2020a, b;Keshri & Bhagat, 2012;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013). Several village-level studies have established that temporary labour migration is rural in nature and caste is one of the important determining factors as far as rural areas are concerned, however we do not find any recent study which has attempted to understand temporary labour migration through a caste lens at the national level. ...
In migration studies, male migrants and their stay-behind families, including women and children have been an area of sustained academic investigation in the Global South. The unaccompanied children of female migrants remain, however, an area of peripheral interest in the existing literature. Millions of South Asian female migrants work in two major destination regions: the GCC countries and Southeast Asia. They are often married with children and their traditional role as mothers is transferred to and executed by other members of the extended family, giving rise to an exciting area of migration research in the global South in general and in South Asia in particular. This paper attempts to address this relatively under-studied field of South-South migration by investigating the stay-behind families of female migrants in Bangladesh with a focus on their unaccompanied children.
... As the foremost motive behind migration is employment, several theories have been put forwarded to understand the diverse economic, geographical and social factors behind this (Harris & Todaro, 1970;Massey et al., 1993;Todaro, 1976). It is well established that temporary labour migration is one of the most significant livelihood strategies adopted by the poorest sections of the society across a variety of developing country contexts, including India (Rajan, 2011;Asfaw et al., 2010;Brauw, 2007;Deshingkar & Grimm, 2005;Ha et al., 2009;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013;Lam et al., 2007;Pham & Hill, 2008). It has been given various nomenclatures, for instance, circular migration, short-term migration and seasonal migration (Rajan & Sumeetha, 2020;Coffey et al., 2015;Deshingkar & Farrington, 2009;Haberfeld et al., 1999;Hugo, 1982). ...
... Internal labour migration has remained inevitable despite the recent impact of globalization and enhancement of transport facilities between countries. It is entrenched that temporary labour migration is one of the most significant livelihood strategies adopted by the poorest sections in developing countries including India (Rajan, 2020a, b;Keshri & Bhagat, 2012;Keshri & Bhagat, 2013). Several village-level studies have established that temporary labour migration is rural in nature and caste is one of the important determining factors as far as rural areas are concerned, however we do not find any recent study which has attempted to understand temporary labour migration through a caste lens at the national level. ...
Traditional migration drivers are being supplanted in certain situations by non-traditional drivers in South Asian (SA) countries. Traditional factors such as economic, climatic, and political concerns appear to be driving a particular group of people to leave. In recent years, however, some fresh factors have emerged in South Asia that have led to the emergence of a new type of migration, namely wealthy South Asians leaving their countries to settle elsewhere in order to secure their accumulated wealth in ways they do not want to disclose. This results in a reverse remittance flow. This study aims to contribute to the discourse on this new category of migrants, which is distinct from traditional migration flows that include economic and forced migration.
