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Synchrotron self-absorption model fit to the SN 2011ja flux densities observed with the ATCA. Note the optically thin part to the right (~ν−1) and the optically thick part to the left (~ν5/2). The radio data are consistent with a synchrotron self-absorbed spectrum as expected from theoretical arguments.
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Massive stars, possibly red supergiants, which retain extended hydrogen envelopes until core collapse, produce Type II plateau (IIP) supernovae. The ejecta from these explosions shocks the circumstellar matter originating from the mass loss of the progenitor during the final phases of its life. This interaction accelerates particles to relativistic...
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... Andrews et al. [5] studied the optical emission from SN 2011ja between days 84-807, from Gemini GMOS photometry and spectroscopy, and the near-and mid-IR emission using Spitzer IRAC and NTT/SOFI data for days 8-857. They also noted signs of an early interaction with CS material, from the emergence of a double peak in the broad Hα line in the optical spectrum, around the same time as noted by Chakraborti et al. [24]. They compared it to several Type IIn supernovae, stating it could belong in between Type II-P and IIn. ...
Modelling the red-blue asymmetries seen in the broad emission lines of core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) is a powerful technique to quantify total dust mass formed in the ejecta at late times ($>5$ years after outburst) when ejecta dust temperatures become too low to be detected by mid-IR instruments. Following our success in using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer code DAMOCLES to measure the dust mass evolution in SN~1987A and other CCSNe, we present the most comprehensive sample of dust mass measurements yet made with DAMOCLES, for CCSNe aged between four and sixty years after outburst. Our sample comprises of multi-epoch late-time optical spectra taken with the Gemini GMOS and VLT X-Shooter spectrographs, supplemented by archival spectra. For the fourteen CCSNe that we have modelled, we confirm a dust mass growth with time that can be fit by a sigmoid curve which is found to saturate beyond an age of $\sim30$ years, at a mass of 0.23$^{+0.17}_{-0.12}$ M$_\odot$. An expanded sample including dust masses found in the literature for a further eleven CCSNe and six CCSN remnants, the dust mass at saturation is found to be 0.42$^{+0.09}_{-0.05}$~M$_\odot$. Uncertainty limits for our dust masses were determined from a Bayesian analysis using the affine invariant Markov Chain Monte Carlo ensemble sampler emcee with DAMOCLES. The best-fitting line profile models for our sample all required grain radii between 0.1 and 0.5 $\mu$m. Our results are consistent with CCSNe forming enough dust in their ejecta to significantly contribute to the dust budget of the Universe.
... The data are in reasonably good agreement with the model densities. SNe data are taken from Chakraborti et al. (2013Chakraborti et al. ( , 2016 As seen in Figure 12, increasing progenitor mass, in broad terms, maps to increased mass loss rates during the later stages of evolution. Mass-loss rates in SN IIP/IIL and some Galactic SNRs are inferred from radio and X-ray observations, and are in broad agreement with the rates used here. ...
Massive stars can shed material via steady, line-driven winds, eruptive outflows, or mass-transfer onto a binary companion. In the case of single stars, the mass is deposited by the stellar wind into the nearby environment. After the massive star explodes, the stellar ejecta interact with this circumstellar material (CSM), often-times resulting in bright X-ray line emission from both the shock-heated CSM and ejecta. The amount of material lost by the progenitor, the mass of ejecta, and its energetics all impact the bulk spectral characteristics of this X-ray emission. Here we present a grid of core-collapse supernova remnant models derived from models for massive stars with zero age main sequence masses of $\sim$ 10 - 30 M$_\odot$ evolved from the pre-main sequence stage with wind-driven mass-loss. Evolution is handled by a multi-stage pipeline of software packages. First, we use mesa (Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics) to evolve the progenitors from pre-main sequence to iron core collapse. We then use the Supernova Explosion Code (snec) to explode the mesa models, and follow them for the first 100 days following core-collapse. Finally, we couple the snec output, along with the CSM generated from mesa mass-loss rates, into the Cosmic-Ray Hydrodynamics code (ChN) to model the remnant phase to 7000 years post core-collapse. At the end of each stage, we compare our outputs with those found in the literature, and we examine any qualitative and quantitative differences in the bulk properties of the remnants and their spectra based on the initial progenitor mass, as well as mass-loss history.
... In the strongest case of interaction with a dense CSM, one can observe narrow recombination lines from the CSM gas photoionized by highenergy photons from the interaction region (spectral Type IIn; Schlegel 1990). For SNe II-P, however, the narrow lines are not present, and the main signatures of the interaction are X-ray and radio emissions coming from the shocked CSM gas, with lower luminosity indicating a less dense CSM in comparison to that of SNe IIn (e.g., SNe 2013ej, Chakraborti et al. 2013;2011ja, Chakraborti et al. 2016. CSM interactions also leave spectroscopic imprints, such as a high-velocity absorption feature of Hα and He I 1.083 μm (Chugai et al. 2007) and asymmetric and multipeaked hydrogen lines associated with a toroidal CSM (e.g., SNe 2007od, Andrews et al. 2010;2011ja, Andrews et al. 2016. ...
... The most unique among our sample were SN 2011ja with bright and almost constant IR luminosity out to ∼1000 days and SN 2013ej with IR rebrightening. Both SNe showed signs of CSM interactions from X-ray observations (Chakraborti et al. 2013(Chakraborti et al. , 2016, optical spectroscopy (Andrews et al. 2016;Mauerhan et al. 2017), and, for SN 2013ej, spectropolarimetry (Mauerhan et al. 2017. SN 2011ja likely formed dust very early at 105 days postexplosion (Andrews et al. 2016). ...
We present infrared (IR) photometry and spectroscopy of the Type II-P SN 2017eaw and its progenitor in the nearby galaxy NGC 6946. Progenitor observations in the Ks band in four epochs from 1 yr to 1 day before the explosion reveal no significant variability in the progenitor star greater than 6% that lasts longer than 200 days. SN 2017eaw is a typical SN II-P with near-IR and mid-IR photometric evolution similar to those of SNe 2002hh and 2004et, other normal SNe II-P in the same galaxy. Spectroscopic monitoring during the plateau phase reveals a possible high-velocity He i 1.083 μm absorption line, indicative of a shock interaction with the circumstellar medium. Spectra between 389 and 480 days postexplosion reveal a strong CO first overtone emission at 389 days, with a line profile matching that of SN 1987A from the same epoch, indicating ∼10 ⁻³ M o of CO at 1800 K. From the 389 days epoch until the most recent observation at 566 days, the first overtone feature fades while the 4.5 μm excess, likely from the CO fundamental band, remains. This behavior indicates that the CO has not been destroyed, but that the gas has cooled enough that the levels responsible for first overtone emissions are no longer populated. Finally, the evolution of Spitzer 3.6 μm photometry shows evidence for dust formation in SN 2017eaw, with a dust mass of 10 ⁻⁶ or 10 ⁻⁴ M o assuming carbonaceous or silicate grains, respectively. © 2019. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved..
... Colbert et al. (2004) calculated a cumulative XLF slope of γ=0.7 using 22 X-ray point sources, finding agreement with other spiral galaxies in their sample. SN 2011ja occurred in NGC 4945 and was studied by Chakraborti et al. (2013) using Chandra. X-ray observations allowed the authors to probe the history of variable mass loss from the progenitor, suggesting that SN may interact with circumstellar material ejected by non-steady winds (varying densities). ...
Nearby galaxy surveys have long classified X-ray binaries (XRBs) by the mass category of their donor stars (high-mass and low-mass). The NuSTAR observatory, which provides imaging data at E > 10 keV, has enabled the classification of extragalactic XRBs by their compact object type: neutron star (NS) or black hole (BH). We analyzed NuSTAR/Chandra/XMM-Newton observations from a NuSTAR-selected sample of 12 galaxies within 5 Mpc having stellar masses (M ∗) 10⁷⁻¹¹ M o and star formation rates (SFRs) ≈ 0.01-15 M o yr⁻¹. We detected 128 NuSTAR sources to a sensitivity of ≈10³⁸ erg s⁻¹. Using NuSTAR color-intensity and color-color diagrams we classified 43 of these sources as candidate NSs and 47 as candidate BHs. We further subdivide BHs by accretion states (soft, intermediate, and hard) and NSs by weak (Z/Atoll) and strong (accreting pulsar) magnetic field. Using eight normal (Milky Way-type) galaxies in the sample, we confirm the relation between the SFR and galaxy X-ray point source luminosity in the 4-25 and 12-25 keV energy bands. We also constrained galaxy X-ray point source luminosity using the relation L X = α M ∗ + βSFR, finding agreement with previous work. The X-ray luminosity function (XLF) of all sources in the 4-25 and 12-25 keV energy bands matches the α = 1.6 slope for high-mass XRBs. We find that NS XLFs suggest a decline beginning at the Eddington limit for a 1.4 M o NS, whereas the BH fraction shows an approximate monotonic increase in the 4-25 and 12-25 keV energy bands. We calculate the overall ratio of BH to NS to be ≈1 for 4-25 keV and ≈2 for 12-25 keV. © 2018. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved.
... = 0.7 using 22 X-ray point sources, finding agreement with other spiral galaxies in their sample. SN 2011ja occurred in NGC 4945 and was studied by Chakraborti et al. (2013) using Chandra. X-ray observations allowed the authors to probe the history of variable mass loss from the progenitor, suggesting that SN may interact with circumstellar material ejected by non-steady winds (varying densities). ...
Nearby galaxy surveys have long classified X-ray binaries (XRBs) by the mass category of their donor stars (high-mass and low-mass). The NuSTAR observatory, which provides imaging data at E $>10$ keV, has enabled the classification of extragalactic XRBs by their compact object type: neutron star (NS) or black hole (BH). We analyzed NuSTAR/Chandra/XMM-Newton observations from a NuSTAR-selected sample of 12 galaxies within 5 Mpc having stellar masses ($M_{\star}$) $10^{7-11}$ $M_{\odot}$ and star formation rates (SFR) $\approx0.01-15$ $M_{\odot}$ yr$^{-1}$. We detect 128 NuSTAR sources to a sensitivity of $\approx10^{38}$ erg s$^{-1}$. Using NuSTAR color-intensity and color-color diagrams we classify 43 of these sources as candidate NS and 47 as candidate BH. We further subdivide BH by accretion states (soft, intermediate, and hard) and NS by weak (Z/Atoll) and strong (accreting pulsar) magnetic field. Using 8 normal (Milky Way-type) galaxies in the sample, we confirm the relation between SFR and galaxy X-ray point source luminosity in the 4-25 and 12-25 keV energy bands. We also constrain galaxy X-ray point source luminosity using the relation $L_{\rm{X}}=\alpha M_{\star}+\beta\text{SFR}$, finding agreement with previous work. The XLF of all sources in the 4-25 and 12-25 keV energy bands matches with the $\alpha=1.6$ slope for high-mass XRBs. We find that NS XLFs suggest a decline beginning at the Eddington limit for a 1.4 $M_{\odot}$ NS, whereas the BH fraction shows an approximate monotonic increase in the 4-25 and 12-25keV energy bands. We calculate the overall ratio of BH to NS to be $\approx1$ for 4-25 keV and $\approx2$ for 12-25 keV.
We present a detailed compilation and analysis of the X-ray phase space of low- to intermediate-redshift (0 ≤ z ≤ 1) transients that consolidates observed light curves (and theory where necessary) for a large variety of classes of transient/variable phenomena in the 0.3–10 keV energy band. We include gamma-ray burst afterglows, supernovae, supernova shock breakouts and shocks interacting with the environment, tidal disruption events and active galactic nuclei, fast blue optical transients, cataclysmic variables, magnetar flares/outbursts and fast radio bursts, cool stellar flares, X-ray binary outbursts, and ultraluminous X-ray sources. Our overarching goal is to offer a comprehensive resource for the examination of these ephemeral events, extending the X-ray duration–luminosity phase space (DLPS) to show luminosity evolution. We use existing observations (both targeted and serendipitous) to characterize the behavior of various transient/variable populations. Contextualizing transient signals in the larger DLPS serves two primary purposes: to identify areas of interest (i.e., regions in the parameter space where one would expect detections, but in which observations have historically been lacking), and to provide initial qualitative guidance in classifying newly discovered transient signals. We find that while the most luminous (largely extragalactic) and least luminous (largely Galactic) part of the phase space is well populated at t > 0.1 days, intermediate-luminosity phenomena ( L X = 10 ³⁴ –10 ⁴² erg s ⁻¹ ) represent a gap in the phase space. We thus identify L X = 10 ³⁴ –10 ⁴² erg s ⁻¹ and t = 10 ⁻⁴ to 0.1 days as a key discovery phase space in transient X-ray astronomy.
The spectacular outbursts of energy associated with supernovae (SNe) have long motivated research into their potentially hazardous effects on Earth and analogous environments. Much of this research has focused primarily on the atmospheric damage associated with the prompt arrival of ionizing photons within days or months of the initial outburst, and the high-energy cosmic rays that arrive thousands of years after the explosion. In this study, we turn the focus to persistent X-ray emission, arising in certain SNe that have interactions with a dense circumstellar medium and observed months and/or years after the initial outburst. The sustained high X-ray luminosity leads to large doses of ionizing radiation out to formidable distances. We assess the threat posed by these X-ray-luminous SNe for Earth-like planetary atmospheres; our results are rooted in the X-ray SN observations from Chandra, Swift-XRT, XMM-Newton, NuSTAR, and others. We find that this threat is particularly acute for SNe showing evidence of strong circumstellar interaction, such as Type IIn explosions, which have significantly larger ranges of influence than previously expected and lethal consequences up to ∼50 pc away. Furthermore, X-ray-bright SNe could pose a substantial and distinct threat to terrestrial biospheres and tighten the Galactic habitable zone. We urge follow-up X-ray observations of interacting SNe for months and years after the explosion to shed light on the physical nature and full-time evolution of the emission and to clarify the danger that these events pose for life in our galaxy and other star-forming regions.
We present a detailed compilation and analysis of the X-ray phase space of low- to intermediate-redshift transients that consolidates observed light curves (and theory where necessary) for a large variety of classes of transient/variable phenomena in the 0.3--10 keV band including gamma-ray burst afterglows, supernovae, supernova shocks interacting with the environment, tidal disruption events and active galactic nuclei, fast blue optical transients, cataclysmic variables, magnetar flares/outbursts and fast radio bursts, cool stellar flares, X-ray binary outbursts, and ultraluminous X-ray sources. Our over-arching goal is to offer a comprehensive resource for the examination of these ephemeral events, extending the X-ray duration-luminosity phase space (DLPS) to show luminosity evolution. We use existing observations (both targeted and serendipitous) to characterize the behavior of various transient/variable populations. Contextualizing transient signals in the larger DLPS serves two primary purposes: to identify areas of interest (i.e., regions in the parameter space where one would expect detections, but in which observations have historically been lacking) and to provide initial qualitative guidance in classifying newly discovered transient signals. We find that while the most luminous (largely extragalactic) and least luminous (largely Galactic) part of the phase space is well-populated at $t > 0.1$ days, intermediate luminosity phenomena (L$_x = 10^{34} - 10^{42}$ erg s$^{-1}$) represent a gap in the phase space. We thus identify L$_x = 10^{34} - 10^{42}$ erg s$^{-1}$ and $t = 10^{-4} - 0.1$ days as a key discovery phase space in transient X-ray astronomy.
The spectacular outbursts of energy associated with supernovae (SNe) have long motivated research into their potentially hazardous effects on Earth and analogous environments. Much of this research has focused primarily on the atmospheric damage associated with the prompt arrival of ionizing photons within days or months of the initial outburst, and the high-energy cosmic rays that arrive thousands of years after the explosion. In this study, we turn the focus to persistent X-ray emission, arising in certain SNe that have interactions with a dense circumstellar medium, and observed months and/or years after the initial outburst. The sustained high X-ray luminosity leads to large doses of ionizing radiation out to formidable distances. We provide an assessment of the threat posed by these X-ray luminous SNe by analyzing the collective X-ray observations from Chandra, Swift-XRT, XMM-Newton, NuSTAR, and others. We find that this threat is particularly acute for SNe showing evidence of strong circumstellar interaction, such as Type IIn explosions, which have significantly larger ranges of influence than previously expected, and lethal consequences up to $\sim$ 50 pc away. Furthermore, X-ray bright SNe could pose a substantial and distinct threat to terrestrial biospheres, and tighten the Galactic habitable zone. We urge follow-up X-ray observations of interacting SNe for months and years after the explosion to shed light on the physical nature of the emission and its full time evolution, and to clarify the danger that these events pose for life in our Galaxy and other star-forming regions.
Modelling the red-blue asymmetries seen in the broad emission lines of core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) is a powerful technique to quantify total dust mass formed in the ejecta at late times (>5 years after outburst) when ejecta dust temperatures become too low to be detected by mid-IR instruments. Following our success in using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer code damocles to measure the dust mass evolution in SN 1987A and other CCSNe, we present the most comprehensive sample of dust mass measurements yet made with damocles, for CCSNe aged between four and sixty years after outburst. Our sample comprises of multi-epoch late-time optical spectra taken with the Gemini GMOS and VLT X-Shooter spectrographs, supplemented by archival spectra. For the fourteen CCSNe that we have modelled, we confirm a dust mass growth with time that can be fit by a sigmoid curve which is found to saturate beyond an age of ∼30 years, at a mass of 0.23$^{+0.17}_{-0.12}$ M⊙. An expanded sample including dust masses found in the literature for a further eleven CCSNe and six CCSN remnants, the dust mass at saturation is found to be 0.42$^{+0.09}_{-0.05}$ M⊙. Uncertainty limits for our dust masses were determined from a Bayesian analysis using the affine invariant Markov Chain Monte Carlo ensemble sampler emcee with damocles. The best-fitting line profile models for our sample all required grain radii between 0.1 and 0.5 μm. Our results are consistent with CCSNe forming enough dust in their ejecta to significantly contribute to the dust budget of the Universe.
