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Green mould disease, caused by Trichoderma species, is a severe problem for mushroom growers worldwide, including Croatia. Trichoderma strains were isolated from green mould-affected Agaricus bisporus (button or common mushroom) compost and Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) substrate samples collected from Croatian mushroom farms. The causal ag...
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... the sampling sites we observed heavy colonisation of the button mushroom compost ( Figure 1) and the oyster mushroom substrate by Trichoderma. The in vitro confrontation assays performed between the isolates and the colonies of button and oyster mushroom also revealed high aggressiveness of the Trichoderma strains towards their hosts. ...
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... Studies have shown that T. harzianum and T. longibrachiatum cause the mycelium of edible fungi to swell, distort, dissolve, brown, wither, and die [14,15]. Trichoderma can secrete secondary toxic metabolites, extracellular enzymes, and volatile organic compounds to inhibit the edible fungi's growth, significantly reducing or even completely hindering commercial production [16]. Studies have shown that T. harzianum can produce extracellular chitinase to act on the cytoderm of P. ostreatus, leading to the disintegration of the cytoplasm [17]. ...
Auricularia auricula, one of the most important edible mushrooms, is affected heavily by Trichoderma. We collected the diseased samples from the main A. auricula cultivation regions to characterize the pathogen and study the effect of Trichoderma spp. on A. auricula species. We identified one Trichoderma species, T. pleuroticola, based on the internal transcribed spacer and morphology characteristics, and two types of A. auricula strains, Heiwei 15 (HW 15) and Hei 29 (H 29), were tested in this work. The growth rate of T. pleuroticola was 3.26–3.52 times higher than that of A. auricula and advantageously competed for living space and nutrients. In confrontation culture, T. pleuroticola completely inhibited the mycelium growth of A. auricula and grew on it, resulting in a diverse impact on HW 15 and H 29. In addition, T. pleuroticola can produce metabolites with antibacterial activity. The inhibition rate of volatile metabolites to H-29 and HW 15 was 13.46% and 10.44%, and the inhibition rate of nonvolatile metabolites to H-29 and HW 15 was 36.04% and 31.49%, respectively. Further analysis showed that these antifungal activities inhibiting Auricularia auricula growth were mainly attributed to the organic compounds from T. pleuroticola, nonanal, tyrosine, beta-sitosterol, and wortmannin. In short, T. pleuroticola was a highly pathogenic fungi in the production of A. auricula.
Graphical Abstract
T. pleuroticola can affect the normal growth of A. auricula hypha, and its metabolites also have inhibitory effects on A. auricula hypha.
... Prochloraz was shown to be the most effective fungicide for the inhibition of mycelial growth in green moulds because the amount of resistant Trichoderma spp isolates was the lowest when analyzing this fungicide. thymol, ferulic acid, (+)-menthol and (-)-menthol inhibited green mould growth at concentrations as low as 0.08 mg/ml to 1.25 mg/ml [61]. • Identify disease symptoms early not only the web but also cap spotting • Treat spotty infections with an alcohol drenched paper towel • Cover infected areas with salt • Heavily infected second and third breaks should be steamed off to reduce the spore load on the farm • Control strategies include lowering humidity and/or increasing air circulation • Increased hygiene of the harvesting and watering department • Judicious applications of benzimidazole fungicides should be made • Chlorothalonil should be included in the fungicide application program ...
Diseases affecting Mushrooms in Africa was reviewed in this study. Mushrooms are fleshy saprophytic fungi with noticeable fruiting bodies, achlorophylous and large enough to be harvested by hand. Edible mushrooms are highly nutritious and can be used as alternatives to meat, milk and eggs. Mushrooms have a history of economic importance in Africa as food and as medicine serving as good health supplements for the treatment of certain diseases of mankind. Mushrooms like other cultivated vegetable crops are subject to attack by pests and pathogens. Mushrooms in Africa are susceptible to a variety of viral, bacterial and fungal diseases that may affect mushroom yield and quality. Intensive cultivation of edible mushroom is often affected by some fungal and bacterial diseases that frequently cause dramatic losses. Pests and disease problems have higher chances of occurring when mushrooms are grown in one location over a long period of time. These infections are also facilitated by the prevalent conditions such as warm temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide levels and presence of pests under which the mushroom cultivation is carried out. There are other major causes of mushroom diseases besides fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses or pests. These are abiotic stress namely nutrient deficiencies, toxic chemicals, improper climatic conditions as well as poor ventilation which cause mushroom abnormalities. Some mushroom diseases are very difficult to control. However, careful farm management and extreme hygiene may prevent major attacks. Moreover, shelf life quality is severely affected by diseases that are still asymptomatic at the time of harvest. Strict maintenance of sanitation and hygiene in the farm helps to control mushroom diseases. Some control measures include the use of disinfectants such as chlorine and the application of selected fungicides. However, this involves significant costs and leaves undesired residues in the ecosystem. Most chemicals that are still allowed have failed to adequately control major mushroom diseases as resistance is easily induced. Other control measures such as bio-control and the use of resistant varieties are suggested good alternatives to chemical control. More research is required to detect the best pesticide-free alternatives for controlling the diseases and pests of mushrooms for the preservation of Africa’s precious heritage, mushrooms.
... All these green mould pathogens grow faster than healthy mushrooms in the mushroom growth environment. Furthermore, the mould could occupy space and absorb nutrients more effectively than the mushrooms (Hatvani et al., 2012). After occupying the mushroom substrate, it produces secondary toxic metabolites, extracellular enzymes, and various volatile organic compounds, which may either lower mushroom production or stop their growth completely (Williams et al., 2003). ...
A review of valorization of oyster mushroom species and waste generated in the mushroom cultivation is presented, with a focus on the cultivation and valorization techniques, conditions, current research status and particularly the hazard mitigation and value-added recovery of the waste mushroom substrate (WMS) - an abundant waste in mushroom cultivation industry. Based on the studies reviewed, the production rate of the present mushroom industry is inadequate to meet market demands. There is a need for the development of new mushroom cultivation methods that can guarantee an increase in mushroom productivity and quality (nutritional and medicinal properties). This review shows that the cylindrical baglog cultivation method is more advantageous compared with the wood tray cultivation method to improve the mushroom yield and cost efficiency. Approximately 5 kg of potentially hazardous WMS (spreading diseases in mushroom farm) is generated for production of 1 kg of mushroom. This encourages various valorization of WMS for use in agricultural and energy conversion applications, mainly as biocompost, plant growing media, and bioenergy. The use of WMS as biofertilizer has shown desirable performance compared to conventional chemical fertilizer, whilst the use of WMS as energy feedstock could produce cleaner bioenergy sources compared to conventional fuels.
... The green mould caused by Trichoderma pleuroticola and T. pleuroti is one of the most serious diseases of Pleurotus ostreatus that frequently causes dramatic production losses ( Hatvani et al., 2007Hatvani et al., , 2012Bellettini et al., 2018;Innocenti et al., 2019). Currently, the only tool available to control the disease in P. ostreatus Italian farms is the prochloraz application at spawn phase. ...
Pleurotus ostreatus, commonly known as “oyster mushroom”, is an edible fungus economically important worldwide. The green mould, caused by Trichoderma pleuroti and T. pleuroticola, is a very important fungal disease, and it is commonly controlled by the use of fungicides. The yeast-like fungus Aureobasidium pullulans is a biocontrol agent naturally found throughout a wide range of habitats. The effect of A. pullulans L1 and L8 strains on P. ostreatus, T. pleuroti and T. pleuroticola was studied in in vitro assays. Both yeast strains resulted compatible with P. ostreatus growth, and effective in reducing the T. pleuroticola and T. pleuroti colony growth. The inhibitory effect of L1 and L8 was similar in the majority of the Trichoderma-A. pullulans combinations on agar plates. Both strains were more efficient than Trichoderma in substrate colonization, and produced volatile and nonvolatile metabolites which reduced Trichoderma growth. When the activity of L1 and L8 was tested against the green mould disease of P. ostreatus under controlled conditions similar to those of a mushroom farm, only L8 was effective in controlling the disease. It showed an effect similar to that of the fungicide prochloraz against T. pleuroticola, the less aggressive pathogen, and lower than that of the fungicide against T. pleuroti, the most aggressive. The antagonism was the result of mechanisms like antibiosis and competition for space and nutrients, whereas the direct attachment of A. pullulans with hyphae of the pathogens did not play a role.
... Typical symptoms of the disease are green sporulation areas on the surface of the cultivation substrate that is exposed to green mould infection, mostly during spawn run. Massive attacks of the disease have been reported in South Korea, where the first significant losses were observed (Park et al., 2006), Sri Lanka (Jayalal & Adikaram, 2007), Hungary (Hatvani et al., 2007), Croatia (Hatvani et al., 2012), Romania (Kredics et al., 2006), Spain (Gea, 2009) and Poland (Sobieralski et al., 2012). The disease has also been reported in North America (Sharma & Vijay, 1996). ...
... Woo et al. (2009) identified the majority of isolates pathogenic to P. ostreatus from Italian mushroom farms as T. pleuroticola and T. harzianum and less commonly as T. pleuroti. Hatvani et al. (2012) identified T. pleuroti and T. pleuroticola as causal agents of the green mould disease from samples obtained from Croatian farms. In the study of Innocenti & Montanari (2014), T. pleuroti and T. pleuroticola were isolated from areas of the cultivation substrate with symptoms, whereas T. harzianum was isolated only from symptomless areas. ...
... Currently only prochloraz is allowed for use in mushroom farms in Italy. The few studies carried out on the sensitivity of T. harzianum, T. pleuroti and T. pleuroticola to fungicides, specifically to prochloraz, showed that T. pleuroti and T. pleuroticola were more sensitive than T. harzianum (Hatvani et al., 2012;Innocenti & Montanari, 2014). ...
The green mould disease causes serious economic losses in Pleurotus ostreatus crop worldwide and also in Italy, where prochloraz is the only chemical fungicide allowed to control the disease. The effectiveness of the doses 0.01, 0.05, 0.25 and 1.25 μL L⁻¹ (field dose) of prochloraz (Sponix Flow, 450 g L⁻¹), against colony growth rate and spore germination of Trichoderma pleuroti, T. pleuroticola and T. guizhouense strains on wheat straw extract agar plates were evaluated. Complete inhibition of Trichoderma pleuroti and T. pleuroticola growth was showed by field dose of prochloraz, and for T. pleuroti also by 0.25 μL L⁻¹. Complete inhibition of spore germination occurred for all Trichoderma strains at field dose, and at 0.25 μL L⁻¹ for T. pleuroti strains. In in vivo assay, the effect of prochloraz doses 0.05, 0.25 and 1.25 μL L⁻¹ on colonisation of straw substrate by T. pleuroti, T. pleuroticola and T. guizhouense inoculated at two spore density (1×10² and 1×10⁵ spores mL⁻¹) immediately after P. ostreatus spawn was studied. Trichoderma pleuroti and T. pleuroticola were both responsible of green mould disease, whereas T. guizhouense was not pathogenic. Trichoderma pleuroti was more aggressive than T. pleuroticola. Prochloraz was effective against T. pleuroti at the field dose, and against T. pleuroticola at 0.25 and 1.25 μL L⁻¹ doses. Our study on Trichoderma–Pleurotus interaction type showed that Trichoderma species were active against the mycelial growth of P. ostreatus by competition for space and nutrients, and neither hyphal interaction nor effect by volatile or non‐volatile metabolites occurred.
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... Also, T. harzianum has a highly aggressive toward A. bisporus, P. ostreatus and L. edodes that regarding contamination problem which leads to a decrease in the gross production and the financial loss for producers [5]. From the incubation temperature profiles of the pathogen and oyster mushroom, no range was found that would allow optimal growth of the mushrooms without mold contamination [9]. ...
... In recent studies, phenolic compounds showed the remarkable fungistatic effect on the Trichoderma spp. and inhibited the host mushrooms as well, but licorice extract may be changing role of phenolic compounds toward them [9]. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the antifungal activity of mycelia of Pleurotus ostreatus (white oyster mushroom) and licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root extract against three undesirable fungi. They are Trichoderma spp., Trichoderma harzianum I and Trichoderma harzianum II which was tested on PSA (potato sucrose agar) medium enriched with licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root extract (PSA-G media) using three concentrations (0.05, 0.10 and 0.20 g/L) in alone and dual cultures. Trichoderma spp. showed less mycelial growth of 8.75, 9.17 and 9.50 mm/day on PSA-G0.05, PSA-G0.1 and PSA-G0.2 respectively compared with 10.25 mm/day on fresh PSA (control) in dual culture. The best mycelial growth inhibition was recorded on PSA-G0.2 (14.97%) by T. harzianum II in alone culture opposite 63.72% in dual ones. The lower mycelial growth rate of T. harzianum I was 17.75 mm/day on PSA-G0.1 (0.10 g/L). In dual culture, overgrowth time of T. harzianum I had 5 days compared as approx. 6 days in alone culture. Generally, when the concentration of licorice extract increased, the mycelial growth rate of the undesirable fungi decreased. Also, all PSA-G media, especially PSA-G0.2, indicated low growth averages compared with the control (fresh PSA) against the pathogen while this concentration encourages growth of oyster mushroom. Also, this concentration reduced the density of sporulation of green molds; therefore, this concentration can be applied to reduce influence this pathogen in cultivation farm.
... Carbendazim was also found to be efficiently inhibiting the mycelial growth green mould isolates (T. harzianum) at very low concentrations (0.63 μg mL -1 to 5 μg mL -1 ) and did not influence the growth of Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus and button mushroom (Hatvani et al., 2012;Woo et al., 2004). Parvez et al. (2009) found that the combination of formalin and Carbendazim (500 mL+ 75 ppm) was the best in inhibiting the mycelial radial growth of all the identified microflora of oyster mushroom substrate. ...
p>An experiment was conducted to find out the fungal competitors and symptom studies in damaged Oyster Mushroom spawn packets at National Mushroom Development and Extension Center, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. A total of nine fungal competitors of oyster mushroom were isolated and identified namely- Trichoderma harzianum Rifai, T. viride Pers. (Green strain), T. viride Pers. (Yellow strain), T. koningii Oudem, Mucor hiemalis Wehmer, Papulaspora byssina Hotson, Neurospora sp. Shear and B.O. Dodge., Aspergillus flavus Link., and Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. on the basis of microscopic, morphological and cultural characteristics. To produce oyster mushroom in an eco-friendly manner and to find out their antifungal potency, 23 plant species belonging to 19 families were screened out against isolated nine fungal competitors of oyster mushroom. Among 23 extracts, the maximum (44%) mycelial inhibition of T. harzianum was found due to Aegle marmelos whereas Eclipta alba showed the highest mycelial inhibition (62%) of T. viride (Green strain); in case of T. viride (Yellow strain), Cassia tora exhibited the highest mycelial inhibition (39%); Diospyros cordifolia showed the maximum mycelial inhibition (48%) of T. koningii ; Curcuma longa (rhizome) gave the maximum mycelial inhibition (90%) of Neurospora sp. There were no significant effects found to control of P. byssina , B. theobromae , M. hiemalis and A. flavus due to 23 different types of botanicals tested. Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride (Green strain), T. viride (Yellow strain), T. koningii , A. flavus , Neurospora sp. and P. byssina was successfully inhibited by 30, 50 and 70 ppm of fungicide-Bavistin 50 WP but B. theobromae and M. hiemalis were not affected by Bavistin at mentioned concentration.
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. & Tech. 6 (2): 24-30, December, 2016</p
... The fungal crop lacks a protective coat or skin (as in fruit such as oranges) and therefore is naturally more susceptible to microbial and chemical contamination compared to many vegetable crops (1). The situation is aggravated because the conditions necessary for mushroom growth also favor the growth of microorganisms (7). ...
... Mushroom-growing climatic conditions can be regarded as medium risk with respect to microbial hazards ( Table 2). Hatvani et al. (7) stated that cultivation conditions of mushrooms favor growth of fungi in general. Consistent results were found in crops such leafy vegetables, broccoli, herbs, and baby corn due to inherent surface characteristics that provide suitable growing conditions for microbes (33). ...
Growing global consumer concern over food safety in the fresh produce industry requires producers to implement necessary quality assurance systems. Varying effectiveness has been noted in how countries and food companies interpret and implement food safety standards. A diagnostic instrument (DI) for global fresh produce industries was developed to measure the compliancy of companies with implemented food safety standards. The DI is made up of indicators and descriptive grids for context factors and control and assurance activities to measure food safety output. The instrument can be used in primary production to assess food safety performance. This study applied the DI to measure food safety standard compliancy of mushroom farming in South Africa. Ten farms representing almost half of the industry farms and more than 80% of production were independently assessed for their horticultural safety management system (HSMS) compliance via in-depth interviews with each farm's quality assurance personnel. The data were processed using Microsoft Office Excel 2010 and are represented in frequency tables. The diagnosis revealed that the mushroom farming industry had an average food safety output. The farms were implementing an average-toadvanced HSMS and operating in a medium-risk context. Insufficient performance areas in HSMSs included inadequate hazard analysis and analysis of control points, low specificity of pesticide assessment, and inadequate control of suppliers and incoming materials. Recommendations to the industry and current shortcomings are suggested for realization of an improved industry-wide food safety assurance system.
... aggressivum f. europaeum) and North America (T. aggressivum f. aggressivum), and then spread into mushroom farms all over Western Europe over the next few years.[3,[5][6][7][8][9][10]During the past decade, the pathogen has dispersed into Central and South East Europe, Central America and Australia.[2,[11][12][13][14][15]Green mould caused by Trichoderma spp. is characterized by white mycelia of fastgrowing colonies on casing or substrate that change color to green after profuse sporulation. ...
... Their mode of action, based on inhibition of mitochondrial respiration, is assumed to be easily overcome by fungi as in the studies concerning Trichoderma and Cladobotryum.[19]It have been found that carbendazim and prochloraz were effective against T. harzianum from Croatia.[15]Carbendazim toxicity against Trichoderma from Pakistan has been confirmed in in vitro studies.[33]Earlier studies have also demonstrated that spawn treatment by benomyl and carbendazim, alone or in combination with prochloraz, reduced substrate colonization by T. aggressivum f. aggressivum, in North America.[34][35][36][37][38]Over ...
... chlorothalonil formulations have been found to significantly inhibit the growth of T. harzianum in Poland.[41]Likewise, some rarely used fungicides (ferulic acid, menthol and thymol) have been reported as having fungistatic effects on T. harzianum isolates from Croatian A. bisporus and P. ostreatus farms, but they inhibited the host mushrooms as well.[15]Prochloraz was found to inhibit the growth of aggressive Trichoderma isolates without having a significant negative effect on the cultivated mushrooms.[2,15]Also, ...
Trichoderma species, the causal agents of green mould disease, induce great losses in Agaricus bisporus farms. Fungicides are widely used to control mushroom diseases although green mould control is encumbered with difficulties. The aims of this study were, therefore, to research in vitro toxicity of several commercial fungicides to Trichoderma isolates originating from Serbian and Bosnia-Herzegovina farms, and to evaluate the effects of pH and light on their growth. The majority of isolates demonstrated optimal growth at pH 5.0, and the rest at pH 6.0. A few isolates also grew well at pH 7. The weakest mycelial growth was noted at pH 8.0-9.0. Generally, light had an inhibitory effect on the growth of tested isolates. The isolates showed the highest susceptibility to chlorothalonil and carbendazim (ED50 less than 1 mg L(-1)), and were less sensitive to iprodione (ED50 ranged 0.84-6.72 mg L(-1)), weakly resistant to thiophanate-methyl (ED50 = 3.75-24.13 mg L(-1)), and resistant to trifloxystrobin (ED50 = 10.25-178.23 mg L(-1)). Considering the toxicity of fungicides to A. bisporus, carbendazim showed the best selective toxicity (0.02), iprodione and chlorothalonil moderate (0.16), and thiophanate-methyl the lowest (1.24), while trifloxystrobin toxicity to A. bisporus was not tested because of its inefficiency against Trichoderma isolates.
... This finding demonstrates a change in the representation of species, as an earlier study revealed the dominance of T. harzianum in the country (Szczech et al., 2008). Green mould-affected Agaricus compost in Croatia yielded exclusively T. harzianum, indicating a broadening spectrum of Trichoderma species being able to cause green mould disease in button mushroom cultivation (Hatvani et al. 2012). ...
... The results of the comprehensive study of Komoń-Zelazowska et al. (2007) confirmed that these two species were responsible for green mould infections in Pleurotus farms in various countries, such as Italy, Hungary, Romania and the Netherlands. In Croatia the same species were found to cause oyster mushroom green mould, being the sole species recovered from infected Pleurotus substrate samples (Hatvani et al. 2012). Pleurotus green mould in Spain was shown to be caused exclusively by T. pleurotum (Gea, 2009). ...
This chapter attempts to summarize the recently available and rapidly increasing amount of information in the literature about the occurrence and biodiversity of Trichoderma species in different ecological habitats. Members of the genus are common in soil and rhizosphere of plants in natural and agricultural fields and forests and on decaying wood. They are also occurring in the air, settled dust and different water-related habitats including marine environments and drinking water. Furthermore, certain species are known as endophytes of plants, colonizers of mushroom-related natural and artificial substrata and facultative pathogens of humans, demonstrating a high adaptability to various ecological niches.
