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Structure of sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
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Due to the increasing interest in the utilization of renewable feedstock’s for producing the chemicals, this paper aims to present a short review compiling some efforts made to synthesize the sodium carboxymethylcellulose (NaCMC) from cellulose isolated from various waste biomass materials. NaCMC is water soluble etherified cellulose salt produced...
Citations
... Cellulose is a component of plant cell walls that can be found in a variety of foods [19]. Nature's yearly biosynthetic capacity for cellulose is estimated to be 10 11 − 10 12 tons/year, making it the most plentiful biopolymer [20]. Cellulose is a polydisperse highmolecular-weight polymer composed of long chains of Dglucose units connected by b-1,4-glucosidic linkages [19]. ...
Plastics utilized in packaging have a significant impact on the environment, leading to considerable concerns regarding human and environmental well-being. Researchers globally are working to counteract these incidents by integrating biopolymers like starch, cellulose, chitosan, etc., into the packaging sector because of their nontoxic nature, biodegradability, and eco-friendly properties. This study aims to extract cellulose from jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) peel by combining bleaching and alkaline treatment (17.5% w/v NaOH) and utilizes the extracted cellulosic compounds to produce a practical biodegradable film. The constructed film can be an alternative to synthetic films currently used in industries, minimize environmental harm caused by plastics, and offer a waste management option for jackfruit peels. The study extracted 28.04% cellulose from jackfruit peel wastes, and it was subsequently utilized to develop a biocompatible composite film containing polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and extracted cellulose. The percentage of cellulose being used in PVA is 0%, 20%, 50%, and 80% compared to pure PVA film. Mechanical properties (tensile atrength, elastic modulus, tensile energy absorption, and strain) as well as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), water absorption, and soil burial test were done to define the material and functional properties of 0%, 20%, 50%, and 80% cellulose-PVA composite film. Among four films, 20% of the jackfruit-extracted cellulose-reinforced PVA film has shown better results compared to others. It has shown maximum thermal stability at 368.2°C. Conversely, the 50% cellulose-reinforced PVA film has maximum contraction at 57.4°C with a value of 130.6 μm compared to other percentages in terms of thermomechanical analysis. It also shows the maximum water absorption percentage. It is evident from this study that a cellulosic component generated from jackfruit peels can be used with PVA to make biodegradable packaging films.
... Among all, we opted for carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a cellulose ether that exhibits thermal gelation, forms itself excellent films due to its polymeric structure and high molecular weight chains, and it has been found to improve the mechanical and barrier properties of the starch-based films due to chemical similarity of starch and CMC, providing good compatibility between them [15,16]. Furthermore, several approaches have been in the last few years to synthesize this compound from cellulose-rich waste biomasses [17]. Similarly to the effect of amylose-amylopectin ratio in starch-based materials, CMC-based biomaterials present many different properties depending on molecular weight (MW) and degree of carboxymethylation, or substitution (DS) [18,19]; therefore, three commercially available CMCs have been evaluated in our investigation to explore the widest panorama. ...
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Starch-based bioplastic Casting deposition Design of experiments Mixture-process combined design Plackett-Burman design Multi-criteria optimization A B S T R A C T Bioplastic materials represent a hot topic in the recent literature, with a particular focus on starch-based materials ; despite the huge composite films proposed, bioplastics' weak points are still limiting their large-scale applications. In this work, we propose a DOE-based multi-criteria optimization of starch/gly/CMC films targeted to improve both film composition and lab-scale preparation. Film composition, starch source and CMC type are studied by mixture-process combined design to model and improve films' tensile properties and solubility in water while the Plackett-Burman design is applied to screen between several casting procedure variants in search for an easy, reliable and reproducible lab-scale methodology. The chemometric approach allows us to identify the optimal composition to achieve both film flexibility and low solubility and to identify a successful and reproducible lab-scale preparation method.
... Unlike starch, it forms no skin. Application of CMC is critical as it might precipitate in the sizing bath or swell in desizing bath [12]. Under high humidity, fabric might develop sticky marks. ...
Textile wet processing is an energy-intensive and water-consuming process. Right from pretreatment to finishing several basic, auxiliary, and specialty chemicals are used during the manufacturing of textiles. There are two main processes, namely sizing and desizing which are mutually responsible for increasing the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) values of liquid effluent emerging after the pretreatment process. This review describes in detail the types of commercial sizing agents depending on their origin, performance, and environmental profile. The review further throws light on the possibilities of extracting energy-efficient, value-added products from the residual waste and effluent. Such recovery mechanisms can enhance sustainability and bring circularity to textile wet processing.
... The hydrophilic character, good film-forming abilities, high viscosity, and adhesive performance facilitate its application. Biomedical engineering, food, paper, textile, pharmaceutical industries, wastewater treatment, and energy production are a few examples of these sophisticated application sectors (Kukrety et al. 2018;Rahman et al. 2021). ...
In this study, TiO2 nanoparticle (TiO2NP)-coated film was produced to protect manuscripts against microorganisms using ecofriendly benign materials. As a result, a simple method was created that uses poultice biofilm made of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Phytagel plant cell (PGP) loaded with TiO2NPs to preserve manuscripts against microbes in an environmentally responsible way. Three volumes (1, 2, 4 mL) of TiO2NPs were put into a biofilm combination to produce the poultices known as CMC/PGP/TiO2-1, CMC/PGP/TiO2-2, and CMC/PGP/TiO2-3. The synthesized TiO2NPs were nearly spherical in shape, small in size (98 nm), and stable (zeta potential value − 33 mV). The results showed that the unique deposition of TiO2NPs on the biofilm surface gave the produced films loaded with TiO2NPs a rough structure. The highest values of mechanical characteristics were determined to be in CMC/PGP/TiO2-1 with values of 25.4 g, 6.6 MPa, and 11.4%, for tensile strength, elongation at break, and tear strength, respectively. Based on molecular identification, the fungus Aspergillus sydowii and the bacterium Nevskia terrae, with accession numbers MG991624 and AB806800, respectively, were isolated and identified from an antiquated manuscript formed from cellulosic fibers. Before the experiments, the produced cotton paper samples were aged, and then, one group was infected for 6 months by A. sydowii and the second group with N. terrae. Following the preparation of a CMC/PGP biofilm loaded with various volumes of TiO2NPs, poultices were applied to infected cotton paper in order to clean it. The infected cotton paper was placed inside the sandwich-like poultices that were created. The poultice CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 demonstrated potential for preventing the growth of A. sydowii and N. terrae-infected cotton paper, when the fibers were saved, cleaned, and coated with CMC/PGP/TiO2-2 after absorbing the fungus and the bacterium and exhibiting exceptional antimicrobial activities. Finally, the novel biofilms have demonstrated their capacity to lessen microbial contamination of cotton paper. In order to generalize the usage of these poultices, it is also advised that they be produced on a large scale and tested on a variety of organic materials in the future.
Graphical Abstract
... The degree of substitution (DS) is the average number of carboxymethyl (CH 2 − COONa) groups replacing the hydroxyl (OH) groups per monomer unit and ranges from 0 to 3 (Kukrety et al., 2018;Lee and Oh, 2013;Lopez et al., 2015;Singh and Khatri, 2012). The solubility and viscosity of Na-CMC are strongly affected by the DS, which may hence influence the rheological and mechanical behaviour of the polymer-clay mixture. ...
Despite some evidence that polymer addition may enhance the resistance of clay to desiccation cracking, the
topic remains under-researched. This study evaluated the effect of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC)
additive on the formation of crack patterns in bentonite clay undergoing dehydration. Thirteen groups of
amended and unamended mixtures, prepared with two different mixing methods and several Na-CMC types and
dosages, were exposed to air dehydration in petri dishes under different environmental conditions of temperature,
humidity and friction. Moisture loss was tracked in real-time and surface cracking was recorded with a
digital camera at regular intervals. Captured photos were analyzed by image processing to quantify crack ratio
and surface area of soil clods. The results indicated that polymer-modified samples consistently exhibited
reduced levels of desiccation cracking compared to unmodified ones under different environmental conditions.
Na-CMC with a degree of substitution (DS) of 0.9, corresponding to peak viscosity of polymer, generated a higher
resistance to cracking than DS of 0.7 or 1.2. In addition, dry mixing seemed to be more effective than wet mixing
in increasing mixture resistance to desiccation cracking.
... The reaction allowed to continue for 2 hours then neutralized with 90% acetic acid and filtered. The obtained CMC was washed with 70% ethanol five times to remove undesirable materials and dried at 60 Cº in an oven the above experiment was repeated using the same 20% concentration of sodium hydroxide but varying reaction times of 3 and 4 hours [12]. ...
The aim of this study is to generate tools for utilizing Cellulose Biomasses Polymers from Palm Frond Fabricating Unit Design, Principles of material balance and volume equations were perform on the Reactor system to derive model equations applied in obtaining the reactor design parameters. Synthesize and characterize of carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC) from Phoenix dactyliferaL, Date palm (leaves by etherification reaction using sodium mono chloroacetic acid (MCA)) and sodium hydroxide. Crystallinity of purified cellulose and (CMC) with degree of substitution of 0.77 and a percentage of produced CMC was 71%. The hydrolysis and dehydration reaction of Cellulose and Sodium hydroxide and Sodium monochord acetic acid respectively to Caboxylmethylcellulose is Exothermic. A cooling jacket incorporated to account for the supply and treatment of heat liberated. As a result, an integrated design of the CSTR reactor was presented to produce 150 tons/year of CMC with a volume of 2435.26 dcm 3 .
... Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC) is the only cellulose derivative included within the group of polyelectrolytes [1]. Based on its properties, mainly the ability to contribute to the desired consistency of products, sodium carboxymethylcellulose has found its way into a range of industrial sectors, with applications mainly in the production of food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals [2][3][4]. The global market for products (foodstuffs, beverages, cosmetics, medicines, and detergents) containing Na-CMC is huge (in 2016, the world market was worth USD 1.2 billion) [5]. ...
... In the food industry, Na-CMC is used, among other applications, to improve the moisture content of products and to give them the desired consistency while preventing the separation of ingredients [8]. In the cosmetics industry, Na-CMC is added to toothpastes and creams as a thickening agent [3,9]. As regards pharmaceuticals, Na-CMC is employed in the production of hydrogels that are used in biomedical engineering as components of drug delivery matrices (carriers for the controlled release of active substances in medicines) [10][11][12][13]. ...
The aim of the research presented in this paper was to determine the effect of dihydroxy alcohols on the rheological properties of sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC) solutions with different degrees of substitution and different average molecular masses. Rheological measurements were carried out with a rotational rheometer in continuous and oscillatory flows. Two dihydroxy alcohols were used in the study: butane-1,3-diol and propane-1,2-diol. The concentration of Na-CMC in the solutions was 1.6% and 2.2%, while the concentration of the dihydroxy alcohols ranged from 10% to 60%. The measurements show that the viscoelastic properties of Na-CMC solutions are strongly linked to the type of solvent used. The application of low-substituted high-molecular-mass Na-CMC makes it possible to obtain fluids with the properties of weak physical gels. On the other hand, the dissolution of Na-CMC with a high degree of substitution (>1) and low molecular mass in dihydroxy alcohol/water mixtures yields a viscoelastic fluid. Based on oscillatory measurements, increasing concentrations of polyhydroxy alcohols in Na-CMC solutions were found to induce an increase in the strength of the network structure. At the same concentrations of polyhydroxy alcohols in solutions containing butane-1,3-diol, a stronger network structure is formed compared to solutions containing propane-1,2-diol. The rheological measurement results presented in this paper may be useful in the formulation of drug carriers and cosmetics in which rheological properties are a significant factor.
... Carboxymethyl cellulose derived from pineapple plants is an effective vehicle for papain immobilization and forms a strong hydrogen bond between the employed materials [77]. Although CMC can be easily extracted from biomass resources [78], bagasse [79] and empty fruit bunch [80] have also been used to produce carboxymethyl cellulose. Every type of biomass resource imparts unique characteristics to CMC, such as exceptional absorption and adsorption, a high swelling ability, and superior optical properties. ...
Food hydrogels are effective materials of great interest to scientists because they are safe and beneficial to the environment. Hydrogels are widely used in the food industry due to their three-dimensional crosslinked networks. They have also attracted a considerable amount of attention because they can be used in many different ways in the food industry, for example, as fat replacers, target delivery vehicles, encapsulating agents, etc. Gels—particularly proteins and polysaccharides—have attracted the attention of food scientists due to their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, nutritional properties, and edibility. Thus, this review is focused on the nutritional importance, microstructure, mechanical characteristics, and food hydrogel applications of gels. This review also focuses on the structural configuration of hydrogels, which implies future potential applications in the food industry. The findings of this review confirm the application of different plant- and animal-based polysaccharide and protein sources as gelling agents. Gel network structure is improved by incorporating polysaccharides for encapsulation of bioactive compounds. Different hydrogel-based formulations are widely used for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds, food texture perception, risk monitoring, and food packaging applications.
... In recent years, the environmental concerns surrounding conventional petroleumbased materials have stimulated the research on natural macromolecules, which guarantee biodegradability and sustainability [1]. Among all, cellulose-based derivatives have deservedly gained a prominent role as natural, biodegradable, renewable, versatile and economical materials [2]. It must be underlined that the large availability of cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer in nature, and the countless opportunities to produce industrial-appealing derivatives from renewable or even waste sources, played a crucial role in the widespread diffusion of this type of substrate [2]. ...
... Among all, cellulose-based derivatives have deservedly gained a prominent role as natural, biodegradable, renewable, versatile and economical materials [2]. It must be underlined that the large availability of cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer in nature, and the countless opportunities to produce industrial-appealing derivatives from renewable or even waste sources, played a crucial role in the widespread diffusion of this type of substrate [2]. ...
Carboxymethyl cellulose, the most promising cellulose-derivatives, pulls together low cost, abundancy, biocompatibility, unique properties and, unlike the precursor, chemical reactivity. This latter aspect arouses the curiosity of chemists around the possibility of chemical modification and the production of interesting functional materials. Here, a two-step reaction is proposed for the covalent anchoring of a wide variety of molecules containing sulfonic groups to CMC. The strength points of the proposed pathway have to be found in the quick and easy reactions and workup that allow to obtain ready-to-use functional materials with very high yields. Having in this case exploited a pH-sensitive dye as a sulfonated molecule, the functional material is an interesting candidate for the development of colorimetric miniaturized sensors via the following drop-casting deposition: once optimized sensors preparation by design of experiments, an example of application on real samples is reported.
... Chemical structures of polyelectrolyte polymers[99,100] ...
In this thesis, photovoltaic redox reactions have been realized through polyurethane ionomer in Quantum dot sensitized solar cells. Thermoplastic polyurethanes are composed of hard segments and soft segments contents. Electrolyte active pendant groups have been introduced on different chemical environment of hard segment contents. Free structured polyurethane ionomer has been realized as electrolyte matrix for photovoltaic reaction in Quantum dot sensitized solar cell. In other words, semiconducting behaviour was realized through variation of chain structure on polyurethane ionomer backbone. Electrolyte active redox groups played a crucial role in photovoltaic reactions. Functionalized redox active urethane linkages function as redox mediating center for conversion of solar energy through Quantum dot sensitized solar cells. Quantum confinement regulates energy gap and energy levels in polyurethane ionomer. Polyurethane ionomer exhibits ionic conductivity because of variation of composition and density of pendant groups between hard segments and soft segments. In this thesis, we have focused on functionalization of hard segment content within polyurethane chain. Photovoltaic redox mediation has been explored via sulfonated polyurethane with different chemical environments in Quantum dot sensitized solar cells. Functionalized polyurethanes have been attracted great attention towards development of ionomer gel electrolyte (matrix) because of corrosion resistant, efficient adhesive nature and better electrochemical stability. Semiconducting behaviour has been achieved due to presence of ionomeric unit (pendant group) on hard segment content. Thus, various polyurethane ionomers have been studied via structural variation across hard segment contents to investigate the solar characteristic performance. The major concluding remarks of the thesis are explained below chapter wise.
In chapter 3 Polyurethane has been synthesized through reaction of (HMDI+PTMG+EDA) at hard segment contents of 30%. Polyurethane hard segments contents (urethane and urea linkages) have been functionalized with sulfonating agents (NaH+ϒ-propane sultone) to generate ionic segments contain mononegative charge. In practice, ionic segment contains Na+ as counter ion. The degree of hard segment functionalization increases with increase in weight ratio of sulfonating agents. Various spectroscopic technologies have been used to investigate structural and functional features. Polyurethane ionomer (sulfonated polyurethane) showed almost spherical size and texture in TEM micrograph. Electrolyte active group embedded polyurethane showed spherical atmosphere due to possible minimization of surface energy. Thermal resistance property was enhanced because of presence of covalently linked ionic segments. The introduction of ionic pendant group causing crystalline regions in the polyurethane ionomers. The variation of functionalization has been proved through UV-visible absorption spectra. The functionalized polyurethane showed red shifted absorption band and absorption peak shifted due to variation of HOMO-LUMO energy gap. HOMO-LUMO energy gaps and energy levels were controlled through optimization of functionalizing agents. Pristine polyurethane showed electrochemical inactive features. However, ionic segment offers charged redox active center to polyurethane chain and redox active behaviour was characterized with clear signature of oxidation and reduction peaks. Hydrophilic pendant group offered electrical regions on the surface of polyurethane chain. Solution phase ionic conductivity has been studied via tuning the composition of electrolyte active pendant anion across polyurethane hard segments. Ionomer gel electrolyte was prepared in a mixture of highly polar organic solvents.
Disodium salt of ethylene diamine tetraaceticacid stabilized the surface structure of CdS QDs. Quantum confinements effect were investigated through blue shifted absorption spectra of synthesized CdS particle. Particle size was analysed through DLS and TEM measurements. The average size of 4 nm and band gap (Eg = 2.69eV) were established in CdS particle. The photovoltaic device was fabricated through layer structure design using spin coating and doctor blade technique. The fabricated device (QDSSC) showed photovoltaic characteristic curve and photovoltaic reaction was realized through measurement of photocurrent density and open circuit potential. The electrolyte features was realized in the open circuit potential range (0.45-0.65V) in QDSS cell. The optimized photovoltaic conversion efficiency was analysed 1.25% with well structural stabilization efficiency in ionomer electrolyte.
In chapter 4 polyurethanes have been synthesized through structural variation of chain extenders (diamine and diol based) at constant HSC of 30%. Electrolyte activity was explored via creating structural, functional and size difference in polyurethane ionomers. Oxygenic rich polyurethane was also synthesized using PCL-diol in place of PTMG during polymerization reaction. The functionalization reaction was optimized with constant weight ratio of sulfonating agents. The ionomeric segments were generated on different hard segment contents of polyurethane chain. The degree of ionization level was characterized using NMR, FTIR and UV-visible absorption spectra. The constant weight ratio of sulfonating agents offered different energy gap (HMO-LUMO) which was probably due to different degree of reactivity of hard segments in polyurethane chains. Thermal resistance and glass transition temperature were characterized with TGA and DSC measurements. Hydrophilic ionic segments (pendant group) offered different degree of ionic conductivity because of different degree of segmental motion and structural movements of polyurethane ionomer chains. The lifetime of free electrons were measured on the different surface of functionalized hard segments of polyurethane ionomers. Ionomer gel electrolytes were prepared using 20% and 30% (w/v) polyurethane ionomers in mixture of highly polar solvents.
3-mercaptopropeonic acid functionalized the surface of CdS particles. Size confinement effects were analyzed through blue shifted absorption spectra. The optimized band gap (Eg = 2.71eV) and average size 12-15 nm were stabilized with 0.65M MPA. Solar device has been fabricated using spin coating and doctor blade techniques. The ionomer gel electrolyte was sand whiched between surface treated (PANi or SGO coated photoanode) and counter electrodes. Photovoltaic characteristic curves were obtained through J-V measurements under illumination of 100 mW/cm2 intense White LED light. Photovoltaic effect was realized through redox reaction of ionomer gel electrolyte in QDSS cells. The QDSS cells open circuit potentials were analyzed in the range of 0.2 - 0.65V for different ionomer electrolytes. The optimized device (QDSSC) showed maximum power conversion efficiency of 1.16% with carbon black decorated polyurethane ionomer gel.
In chapter 5 GO implanted polyurethane ionomers have been developed as gel electrolytes with content 0.2%, 0.5% and 1% GO. The optimized PUI-GO (0.5%) has been studied extensively in QDSSCs. The gel polyelectrolyte activity was realized due to presence of pendant anions (sulfonate and carboxylate ion) linked on composite polyurethane backbone. The GO implanted ionomers were characterized with 1H NMR, FT-IR, TGA, DSC and UV-visible spectroscopy. Electrochemical characteristics have been studied with the help of CV and EIS measurements. The surface morphologies (size, surface texture, chemical interaction and interfacial wettability) have been investigated with SEM, AFM and TEM measurements. Structure-function characteristic features have been correlated with surface morphology. RGO has been coated on conductive surface of FTO to improve electron injection and transport properties. Quantum dots sensitized solar cell has been fabricated with MPA caped CdS Quantum dots as photosensitizer. The polyelectrolyte activity of developed structure was studied comparatively with pristine polyurethane ionomer (PUI). The optimum GO content improved the electrical regions in polyurethane ionomer. The fabricated Quantum dot sensitized solar cell consist a configuration FTO-RGO/TiO2/MPA-CdS/PUI-GO/FTO-Pt for photovoltaic characterization. The optimized QDSS cell showed conversion efficiency of 1.63% with open circuit potential of 0.594V with efficient passivation (retards charge recombination) and redox activity between photoanode and counter electrode.
