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Strict consensus of 120 most-parsimonious trees of 406 steps (CI 0.58; RI 0.78). Numbers above the internodes are bootstrap values. Numbers below the internodes are decay values at which the node collapses. Bro, Bromelioideae; Til, Tillandsioideae. Pit. s.s., Pitcairnioideae sensu stricto; Rapat, Rapateaceae.
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Parsimony analysis of 31 sequences of the chloroplast locus ndhF was used to address questions of subfamilial phylogeny in Bromeliaceae. Results presented here are congruent with those from chloroplast DNA restriction site analysis in recognizing a clade containing Bromelioideae and Pitcairnioideae, and in resolving Tillandsioideae near the base of...
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Context 1
... in taxonomic treatments of Bromeliaceae is the close relationship of the two most ecologically com- plex subfamilies, Tillandsioideae and Bromelioideae (Smith, 1955;Hutchinson, 1973;Smith and Downs, 1974, 1979. Both are largely epiphytic, and pos- sess a host of morphological and physiological attributes associated with these life forms (e.g., reduced root sys- tems, crassulacean acid metabolism [CAM], and absorb- ing trichomes). Cladistic analysis of morphological fea- tures is supportive of a sister group relationship for Til- landsioideae and Bromelioideae (Gilmartin and Brown, 1987). Moreover, the relative morphological and ecolog- ical simplicity of Pitcairnioideae is consistent with the putative primitiveness of this subfamily, and suggests a more distant relationship with either Tillandsioideae or Bromelioideae. Despite the apparent association of Til- landsioideae and Bromelioideae when considered from an ecological perspective, few of the molecular studies ad- dressing subfamily phylogeny in Bromeliaceae substan- tiate this relationship (Givnish, Sytsma, and Smith, 1990;Ranker et al., 1990;Givnish et al., 1992). Phylogenetic reconstruction based on ndhF sequences integrates tra- ditional and molecular perspectives of subfamily rela- tionships in Bromeliaceae in two ways. First, a core com- ponent of Pitcairnioideae (i.e., Navia, Pitcairnia, Pepinia, Fosterella, Encholirion, and Dyckia) is resolved as the sister group to the clade containing Puya and Bromelioi- deae (Fig. 2). This finding is largely consistent with that resulting from restriction site analysis of the chloroplast genome ( Ranker et al., 1990; see below). Second, the resolution of Brocchinia at the base of the family cor- roborates the contention that Bromeliaceae is ancestrally pitcairnioid-like with respect to morphology and ecolog- ical preference (Fig. 2). This result is consistent with as- sertions that epiphytic lines in Bromeliaceae may have arisen independently from an ancestral stock that was morphologically and ecologically comparable to extant Pitcairnioideae (Benzing, Givnish, and Bermudes, 1985;Smith, 1989). Character state reconstructions for ovary position, fruit type, carbon metabolism, and growth habit indicate that the ancestral state for these characters in Bromeliaceae is the same as the condition typified by most pitcairnioids (R. Terry and G. K. Brown, unpub- lished data). Furthermore, the common ancestry of Til- landsioideae and Bromelioideae is not supported by leaf morphology, ovary position, or fruit type data. Although Bromelioideae appear exclusively or largely monomor- phic for a number of unique features (e.g., inferior ova- ries, CAM metabolism, and baccate fruits; see Smith and Downs, 1979), polymorphism in Puya in ovary position (superior to partly inferior) and carbon metabolism (C 3 and CAM) suggest a possible Pitcairnioideae-Bromelioi- deae ...
Context 2
... in taxonomic treatments of Bromeliaceae is the close relationship of the two most ecologically com- plex subfamilies, Tillandsioideae and Bromelioideae (Smith, 1955;Hutchinson, 1973;Smith and Downs, 1974, 1979. Both are largely epiphytic, and pos- sess a host of morphological and physiological attributes associated with these life forms (e.g., reduced root sys- tems, crassulacean acid metabolism [CAM], and absorb- ing trichomes). Cladistic analysis of morphological fea- tures is supportive of a sister group relationship for Til- landsioideae and Bromelioideae (Gilmartin and Brown, 1987). Moreover, the relative morphological and ecolog- ical simplicity of Pitcairnioideae is consistent with the putative primitiveness of this subfamily, and suggests a more distant relationship with either Tillandsioideae or Bromelioideae. Despite the apparent association of Til- landsioideae and Bromelioideae when considered from an ecological perspective, few of the molecular studies ad- dressing subfamily phylogeny in Bromeliaceae substan- tiate this relationship (Givnish, Sytsma, and Smith, 1990;Ranker et al., 1990;Givnish et al., 1992). Phylogenetic reconstruction based on ndhF sequences integrates tra- ditional and molecular perspectives of subfamily rela- tionships in Bromeliaceae in two ways. First, a core com- ponent of Pitcairnioideae (i.e., Navia, Pitcairnia, Pepinia, Fosterella, Encholirion, and Dyckia) is resolved as the sister group to the clade containing Puya and Bromelioi- deae (Fig. 2). This finding is largely consistent with that resulting from restriction site analysis of the chloroplast genome ( Ranker et al., 1990; see below). Second, the resolution of Brocchinia at the base of the family cor- roborates the contention that Bromeliaceae is ancestrally pitcairnioid-like with respect to morphology and ecolog- ical preference (Fig. 2). This result is consistent with as- sertions that epiphytic lines in Bromeliaceae may have arisen independently from an ancestral stock that was morphologically and ecologically comparable to extant Pitcairnioideae (Benzing, Givnish, and Bermudes, 1985;Smith, 1989). Character state reconstructions for ovary position, fruit type, carbon metabolism, and growth habit indicate that the ancestral state for these characters in Bromeliaceae is the same as the condition typified by most pitcairnioids (R. Terry and G. K. Brown, unpub- lished data). Furthermore, the common ancestry of Til- landsioideae and Bromelioideae is not supported by leaf morphology, ovary position, or fruit type data. Although Bromelioideae appear exclusively or largely monomor- phic for a number of unique features (e.g., inferior ova- ries, CAM metabolism, and baccate fruits; see Smith and Downs, 1979), polymorphism in Puya in ovary position (superior to partly inferior) and carbon metabolism (C 3 and CAM) suggest a possible Pitcairnioideae-Bromelioi- deae ...
Context 3
... results presented here are mostly consistent with the conclusions from Ranker et al. (1990), except that analysis of ndhF sequences does not support Glomero- pitcairnia as a lineage distinct from Tillandsioideae. To- pological incongruence between these two studies appar- ently results, in part, from sampling differences. This is suggested by phylogenetic analyses of DELMAT, the re- sults of which are consistent with those of the restriction site study in identifying three primary lineages in Bro- meliaceae (i.e., Glomeropitcairnia, Tillandsioideae sensu stricto, and Pitcairnioideae plus Bromelioideae; results not shown). Moreover, analysis of DELMAT including Brocchinia resolves Brocchinia as basal in the family and repositions Glomeropitcairnia in Tillandsioideae. Incon- gruence in the ndhF and restriction site trees is probably not attributable to differences in outgroup choice between the studies, because results from analysis of DELMAT are not affected by using either Vellozia (Velloziaceae) or Stegolepis (Rapateaceae) as the outgroup. Trees re- sulting from analysis of DELMAT differ from that of the restriction site data in three ways: (1) a paraphyletic Pit- cairnioideae and a monophyletic Bromelioideae are iden- tified; (2) a Puya-Bromelioideae sister group relationship [Vol. 84 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY is resolved; and (3) Glomeropitcairnia is the sister group to the remainder of Bromeliaceae, as compared to the sister group of Bromelioideae-Pitcairnioideae ( Ranker et al., 1990). Differences in the number of phylogenetically informative characters may also contribute to inconsis- tencies between the restriction site and ndhF sequence phylogenies. On a per taxon basis, this study included 112% more phylogenetically useful characters than the restriction site study. Sampling differences notwithstand- ing, results presented in Fig. 2 are consistent with those based on restriction site analysis ( Ranker et al., 1990) in supporting a basal Tillandsioideae and in defining a Pit- cairnioideae-Bromelioideae ...
Context 4
... from bootstrap and decay analyses (Fig. 2) in- dicate support for inclusion of Catopsis and Glomeropit- cairnia in Tillandsioideae. Placement of each as the sister group to Bromeliaceae sensu stricto resulted in an in- crease in tree length of one and two steps, respectively, while placement of Glomeropitcairnia at the base of Pit- cairnioideae sensu stricto increased tree length by six steps. Restricting Tillandsioideae to a sister group rela- tionship with either Pitcairnioideae sensu stricto or Bro- melioideae plus Puya resulted in length increases of two steps in each case. Other alternative placements and their increase of tree length include: (1) restriction of Puya aequatorialis to a basal position in Pitcairnioideae (seven steps); (2) placement of Navia splendens as the sister group to Bromeliaceae sensu stricto and to Bromeliaceae (three and ten steps, respectively); (3) restriction of Broc- chinia to a basal position in either Tillandsioideae or Pit- cairnioideae (seven steps in each ...
Similar publications
Pitcairnia azouryi is a species of Bromeliaceae restricted to Atlantic Forest inselbergs of southeastern Brazil. Since the species was first described, populations of P. azouryi have been observed from three locations in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. Here we report four new populations discovered after extensive fieldwork during...
Citations
... Puya (Bromeliaceae) es un género con más de 200 especies (Gouda & Butcher 2020), fue descrito por Molina, en base a Puya chilensis (Grant & Zijlstra 1998), inicialmente incluido por Smith y Downs (1974) en la subfamilia Pitcairnioideae, posteriormente separado de esta subfamilia por su cercanía filogenética con Bromelioideae (Terry et al. 1997) y ubicado por Givnish et al. (2007) en la subfamilia Puyoideae. Se distribuye desde el centro de Chile y Argentina hacia la región andina, teniendo el mayor número de especies en las elevaciones y latitudes medias al sur del Ecuador (Jabaily & Sytsma 2012, Madriñán 2015) llegando a registrarse algunas especies en Centroamérica (Morales 2003) y ocupando una diversidad de hábitats húmedos y secos con manifestaciones adaptativas muy particulares (Grau et al. 2010, Yepez 2017, como por ejemplo los relacionados con polinizadores específicos (Kessler et al. 2020, Salinas et al. 2007, Velásquez-Noriega et al. 2020, Hornung-Leoni et al. 2013a, Givnish et al. 2014, Restrepo-Chica & Bonilla-Gómez 2017, García-Meneses 2012. ...
Este estudio proporciona una lista comentada de las especies de Puya (Bromeliaceae) registradas en el departamento de Lambayeque, Perú. Se reportan un total de cinco especies, de las cuales cuatro se registran por primera vez y una de ellas se confirma como endemismo de los Andes del Departamento. Las ecorregiones donde se encuentran corresponden al Bosque Seco estacional (BSe), la transición Matorral Desértico-Bosque Seco (MD-BS) y Jalca (JA). Se presenta una clave para las especies reportadas y se discuten las razones de los endemismos, amenazas y sus criterios de categorización.
... Since the work of Terry & al. (1997) that based on ndhF suggested a sister relationship of the genus Araeococcus to Quesnelia, different placements and different sampling for Araeococcus have been used in phylogenetic reconstructions. Sampling only Amazonian taxa (Araeococcus flagellifolius and A. goeldianus) and using nuclear and plastid markers, Schulte & al. (2009) recovered both these Araeococcus as sister species, but nested in a clade with other Amazonian species of Aechmea (A. mertensii, A. filicaulis) within the core Eu-Bromelioideae. ...
After a revision of the genus Araeococcus Brong. two distinct morpho-biogeographical groups, also supported by anatomical characters, became evident and contradictory. Thus, here we elevate a subgenus to the generic level and propose the new Pseudareococcus to accommodate species bearing a unique combination of vegetative, reproductive and biogeographical features. Pseudaraeococcus differs from Araeococcus by the utriculate rosette with a developed tank (vs. fasciculate rosette and tank inconspicuous or absent), leaves nearly entire (vs. serrate), petals patent or reflexed (vs. petals erect), filaments cylindrical (vs. complanate), anther apex apiculate (vs. caudate), stigma conduplicate-spiral (vs. convolute-obconic, convolute blade I or simple-erect), seed coat with alveolar cells (vs. with cells with linear shapes), and by the Atlantic forest (vs. Amazonian/Central America) distribution. Six new combinations were made to accommodate species, and an identification key, a distributional map, and photographs of plants and structures are provided.
... Investigating the gene expression that underlies the formation of petal appendages in bromeliads is an open field of study. Previous studies have revealed little variation in genetic markers that have traditionally been used to construct phylogenetic histories of Bromeliaceae (Terry, Brown & Olmstead, 1997, Givnish et al., 2011, Versieux et al., 2012. Phylogenetic hypotheses indicate that petal appendages appeared several times as an evolutionary adaptation, influenced by pollinators (Schulte & Zizka, 2008;Aguirre-Santoro et al., 2016). ...
Aechmea (Bromeliaceae) is a large genus with controversial systematics and distinct flower shapes and pollinators. We explored floral anatomy and development in two Aechmea spp. belonging to different subgenera to contribute useful information on reproductive biology and taxonomy. We examined floral buds using scanning electron and light microscopy to characterize the development of septal nectaries, petal appendages, ovules, stamens and carpels. In A. gamosepala, we confirmed that the petal appendages develop late, whereas in A. correia-araujoi they develop earlier during floral development. Petal appendage formation included positional changes, possibly affecting floral attributes and visitation by insects, rather than vertebrates. Nectar is released through three basal orifices distally on the ovary, and here we document the link between the nectary region, through discrete canals, upward to the conduplicate lobes of the wet stigma. Improved understanding of the floral development and morphology of Aechmea may help to explain the existence of polymorphic flowers in this genus and may have implications for studies on interactions with pollinators and systematics.
... Its main center of diversity is the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, where five species are endemic (Leme and Siqueira-Filho 2006;Pontes 2018 A.Siqueira (Leme and Siqueira-Filho 2006). Some studies present the group as polyphyletic (Terry et al. 1997;Horres et al. 2007;Sass and Specht, 2010). According to Sass and Specht (2010), Araeococcus is not a monophyletic genus, since the Amazonian taxa appear nested in a clade together with Aechmea jungurudoensis H.Luther & K.Norton, while the single accession from Southern Bahia sampled emerged as a sister species to Hohenbergia subgenus Hohenbergia. ...
Araeococcus lageniformis is a new species described and illustrated here based on collections from the Atlantic Forest from the south of Bahia State, northeastern Brazil, and on morphological and anatomical characters. It is distinguished from A. nigropurpureus by the diameter of the tank, the morphology of the leaf, floral bracts, and sepals, by its sessile to nearly sessile flowers, its seed morphology, and by the presence of trichomes on both sides of the leaves. So far, the species is only known from Apuarema and Ibirapitanga municipalities. The type population was found in an unprotected area, fragmented by tracks and roads, where illegal logging takes place. Here we preliminarily assessed its conservation status as critically endangered.
... 1500 species) and most widespread subfamily of Bromeliaceae, occurring from North America to South America (Smith & Downs, 1977;Barfuss et al., 2016;Leme, Halbritter & Barfuss, 2017;Gouda et al., continuously updated). All molecular analyses published so far have recovered the group as monophyletic (Terry, Brown & Olmstead, 1997;Horres et al., 2000;Crayn, Winter & Smith, 2004;Barfuss et al., 2005Barfuss et al., , 2016Givnish et al., 2007Givnish et al., , 2014Leme et al., 2017). Barfuss et al. (2005) split the subfamily into four tribes: Glomeropitcairnieae, Catopsideae, Tillandsieae and Vrieseeae, the last two forming core Tillandsioideae. ...
Subtribe Vrieseinae comprise four genera, Alcantarea, Stigmatodon, Vriesea s.s. and Waltillia, encompassing c. 20% of species in Tillandsioideae (Bromeliaceae), almost all of which are exclusive to Brazil. Here, we explore the biogeographic history of Vrieseinae, sampling 21 of the 22 genera of Tillandsioideae (130 terminals) and three DNA sequence markers (two plastid: rps16-trnK and matK; one nuclear: PHYC). We inferred a dated phylogeny and the ancestral areas of this lineage through RASP (reconstruct ancestral state in phylogeny) analyses. Vrieseinae were recovered as monophyletic, but tribe Vrieseeae (subtribe Vrieseinae + subtribe Cipuropsidinae) were not. A vicariant event between the Andes and Brazilian Shield probably occurred c. 10 Mya, when two clades, Cipuropsidineae + Tillandsieae and Vrieseineae, diverged. The Atlantic Forest plus the Chacoan region is recognized as the ancestral area for Vrieseinae. The results confirmed the recent origin of genera of Vrieseinae, with estimated crown ages in the Pliocene (5.3-2.6 Mya). We propose that the Paranaean Sea influenced the divergence of the main clades; Pleistocene events were probably responsible for the diversification of the most recent clades. This study sheds light on the biogeographic history of a key group of Neotropical plants, providing a new hypothesis for the evolution of bromeliads.
... The PCR protocol for trnK was 1 × Bioline Biomix, 0.35 μM each primer, 0.2 g/mL BSA, 4% v/v DMSO and 15 ng DNA template in 50 μL total volume. The 3 end of ndhF was amplified with primers ndhF 745F and ndhF 2110R (Terry, Brown, & Olmstead, 1997) for 45 samples representing all recovered matK haplotypes. PCR reactions were each performed in 50 μL volumes containing final concentrations of 1× Bioline Biomix, 0.35μM each primer, 0.2 mg/mL BSA (bovine serum albumin) and 15 ng DNA template. ...
Hoop-petticoat daffodils are a morphologically congruent group comprised of two distinct lineages in molecular phylogenetic trees of Narcissus. It is possible that the morphological similarity is a product of both historic and current low-level gene flow between these lineages. For the first time, we report population sampling from across the entire range of distribution covering the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco. In total, 455 samples were collected from 59 populations. Plastid DNA sequences of matK and ndhF were generated alongside 11 microsatellite loci to permit comparison between plastid and nuclear lineage histories. The plastid DNA phylogenetic tree was highly congruent with previous molecular studies and supported the recognition of these two lineages of hoop-petticoat daffodils as separate sections. Assignment of samples to sections sometimes differed between plastid DNA and (nuclear) microsatellite data. In these cases, the taxa had previously been the focus of dissent in taxonomic placement based on morphology. These discrepancies could be explained by hybridization and introgression among the two lineages during the evolution of hoop-petticoat daffodils, and shows that placement of species in sections is dependent on the source of data used. This study underlines the complex evolutionary history of Narcissus and highlights the discrepancies between floral morphology and phylogeny, which provides a continuing challenge for the systematics of Narcissus.
... Atualmente, são reconhecidas oito subfamílias (Givnish et al. 2007(Givnish et al. , 2011, entre as quais os maiores problemas de delimitação genérica são observados em Bromelioideae, cujos conceitos taxonômicos são divergentes entre os diferentes tratamentos (e.g., Baker 1889;Mez 1896Mez , 1934Smith & Downs 1979). A subfamília Bromelioideae é monofilética (Terry et al. 1997;Horres et al. 2000;Schulte et al. 2005;Horres et al. 2007;Givinish et al. 2007;Schulte et al. 2009;Sass & Specht 2010;Givinish et al. 2011) e reúne ca. 800 espécies distribuídas em 33 gêneros (Luther 2012), sendo a segunda maior subfamília de Bromeliaceae. ...
Resumo O Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos (PARNASO) localiza-se na região serrana do estado do Rio de Janeiro e representa uma importante unidade de conservação brasileira, guardando importantes ecossistemas da Mata Atlântica do sudeste do Brasil. Apresenta-se um estudo florístico-taxonômico dos gêneros Edmundoa, Neoregelia e Wittrockia (Bromeliaceae, Bromelioideae) no PARNASO, baseado em coletas de campo, materiais de herbário e bibliografia. Descrições foram feitas com base na variação morfológica observada em todos os exemplares provenientes da região. Foram encontrados 16 táxons, sendo Neoregelia o gênero mais rico, com 13 espécies, seguidos por Wittrockia (duas) e Edmundoa (uma), nenhum incluído em listas oficiais de espécies ameaçadas. No presente artigo são apresentadas chaves de identificação, descrições, informações sobre distribuição geográfica e comentários morfológicos e taxonômicos para os táxons.
... In total, 34 taxa were included in phylogenetic analysis, 32 of them were downloaded from GenBank (Table 1). For phylogenetic analyses, we used one nuclear region, ribosomal ITS (White et al. 1990), and six plastid markers, trnL-trnF, psbA-trnH, rbcL, atpB, ndhF, matK (Taberlet et al. 1991, Olmstead et al. 1994, Hoot et al. 1995, Terry et al. 1997, Osaloo et al. 1999, Hayashi et al. 2000, Molvray et al. 2000. PCR products were sequenced by Sangon Biotech using 3730xl DNA Analyzer. ...
Paris lihengiana (Melanthiaceae), a new species from Yunnan Province, China, is described and illustrated based on evidence from morphological characters and molecular phylogeny. It differs from other species of Paris in its pubescent stem, pedicel and abaxial leaf surface, as well as other characters. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of 33 taxa in Paris was conducted based on nuclear ribosomal ITS and six plastid markers. Paris lihengiana is supported as a new species by both morphological characters and molecular data.
... Our understanding of the phylogeny of the Bromeliaceae has changed repeatedly over the last two decades, revealing that some groups formerly defined by floral morphology and habit are in fact paraphyletic (e.g. Terry et al. 1997;;Barfuss et al. 2005;Givnish et al. 2007Givnish et al. , 2011Givnish et al. , 2014Escobedo-Sarti et al. 2013; see the revision in Palma-Silva et al. 2016). However, the monophyly of Bromeliaceae has been commonly accepted on the basis of morphological, anatomical and molecular characters (Gilmartin and Brown 1987;Crayn et al. 2004;Givnish et al. 2004Givnish et al. , 2007. ...
Background: Chiropterophily encompasses the floral traits by which bats are attracted as the main pollinators. Among the chiropterophilous flowering plants of the New World, Bromeliaceae is one of the most ecologically important families; however, information about the chiropterophilous interaction in this family is still scarce. Aims: We present a comprehensive review of bat pollination in bromeliads, covering floral traits, rewards offered to pollinators, floral attractants and the identity of visiting bat species. Methods: We discuss traits shared among chiropterophilous bromeliads and present general trends in an evolutionary context. We constructed a phylogenetic tree to elucidate the ancestral pollination syndromes of the 42 extant bromeliad species (ca. 1% of total) known to be bat-pollinated. Results: Most of the species within the ten genera reported belong to the Tillandsioideae subfamily, with three genera appearing to be exclusively bat-pollinated. Floral visitors include 19 bat species of 11 genera from the Phyllostomidae. Conclusions: Our analysis indicated that chiropterophilous floral features originated multiple times in bromeliad evolution, most probably from ornithophilous. The evidence for floral traits associated with bat pollination and the chiropterophilous syndrome presented by certain Bromeliaceae indicate the important role played by bats in the evolution of this plant family.
... Palma- provide a review of recent phylogenetic studies in the family. Bromelioideae have 936 species and 33 genera; subfamily Puyioideae are its sister group (Terry, Brown & Olmstead, 1997;Horres et al., 2000Horres et al., , 2007Crayn, Winter & Smith, 2004;Barfuss et al., 2005;Schulte, Horres & Zizka, 2005;Givnish et al., 2007Givnish et al., , 2011Givnish et al., , 2014Schulte & Zizka, 2008;Schulte, Barfuss & Zizka, 2009;Escobedo-Sarti et al., 2013;. Divergence time studies have estimated a probable origin of Bromelioideae at 10 Mya in the Andean region followed by a process of further colonization and speciation in eastern Brazil, which places the Atlantic Forest as the richest area in terms of species and endemism for the subfamily (Givnish et al., 2007(Givnish et al., , 2011(Givnish et al., , 2014Silvestro et al., 2014). ...
A better understanding of the phylogenetics of Aechmea subgenus Chevaliera is hampered by the limited taxonomic sampling in molecular studies of Bromelioideae. To test the monophyly of Aechmea subgenus Chevaliera, we conducted a molecular phylogenetic study using three DNA regions (ETS, matK and phyC) and a reconstruction of ancestral states of morphological characters. Our sampling included 22 of the up to 30 species recorded in the subgenus. Aechmea subgenus Chevaliera turned out to be clearly polyphyletic, with Amazonian species previously included in A. subgenus Chevaliera being found in separate clades of the phylogenetic tree for Bromelioideae. Two distinct groups comprise the majority of the Atlantic species up to now grouped in Chevaliera. The first of these, referred to as the A. multiflora group, includes seven species related to A. multiflora. The second group includes 11 species, referred to as the A. sphaerocephala group. Morphological analyses show that the A. multiflora and A. sphaerocephala groups are convergent in plant size, growth form and inflorescence morphology. The groups can morphologically be best differentiated based on the margin of the floral bracts and petal colour.
