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Reims Cathedral is a major monument in the NE of France originally built with local Lutetian limestone. The recent closure of the last quarries has made restoration using the same stone more complicated. The restoration stones used currently are Lutetian limestones from the centre of the Paris Basin (Saint-Pierre-Aigle and Saint-Maximin stones). Ma...
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Context 1
... mapping of the northern parts of the apse showed that the pinnacles were of oolitic limestone from the Savonnières-en-Perthois region (the Sav- onnières stone group from Tithonian) or of Saint- Maximin stones (from Lutetian) for the current restoration (Fig. 3). For buttress elevations and the window between the two arches, a local orange brown miliolid limestone was used. At the base of buttress No. 3 on the apse wall, the Courville stone was clearly identified by a specific facies, coming from the Saint-Julien quarry near Cour- ville: a fine orange brown limestone with a blue vein in the ...
Context 2
... the base of buttress No. 3 on the apse wall, the Courville stone was clearly identified by a specific facies, coming from the Saint-Julien quarry near Cour- ville: a fine orange brown limestone with a blue vein in the centre of the blocks (Middle Lutet- ian). Caps and decorations of buttresses were of oolitic Savonnières or in Saint-Maximin stone (Cerithium Lutetian Limestone) (Figs 3 & 4d). One column on the pinnacles of buttress No. 2 was composed of miliolid limestones and Ditrupa limestones. ...
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Citations
... An important portion of larger pores (>1 μm) is often present (e.g. Columbrina stone [17] or Lecce stone [74]) but there are various high-porosity soft stones with more comparable textures to Ançã stone that have alike predominant pore-size classes, within the range 0.1-1 μm (such as Tuffeau stone [75,76], some Lutetian limestone varieties [77,78], La Pallice stone [79]). Those seem particularly vulnerable to damage due to ice and salt crystallization because of the particularities of their porous systems (pore sizes and connectivity) that favor either water absorption and capillary movement of water within stone. ...
Soft limestones are widely present in noteworthy constructions, but they are prone to decay due to their specific characteristics. In this paper, soft Ançã stone possessing a wide range of properties are analyzed to explain the degradation patterns and degradation rates that can be found in monuments and to estimate decay susceptibility. Experimental results indicated good correlations between physical, hydric and mechanical properties, allowing to propose drilling resistance and shore hardness as the key to estimate several other properties of soft limestones in-situ. Integrity loss rate of soft limestones submitted to freeze-thaw cycles, was found to be closely related to the saturation coefficient. Analytic relation to estimate decay of soft limestones and number of freeze-thaw cycles required to reach a pre-collapse state are drawn.
... The Savonnieres stone is a limestone dating back to the Lower Tithonian (150 My) and still mined in the two last quarries in the vicinity of Saint Dizier City in Eastern France. It appeared in buildings from the modern period (1755) in Rheims City and is now employed for restoration (Fronteau et al., 2014). It is a clear limestone classified as a grainstone, with calcite spar crystals which surround oolit vacuolar grains and shell debris (Fig. 2). ...
This study investigated the bioreceptivity of two Lutetian limestones (Courville and Ditrupa), mainly used in the north-eastern region of France, and of their restoration stone (Savonnieres). Samples of the three stones were exposed outdoor for 2.5 years to determine if the replacement of Lutetian stones by Savonnieres was relevant regarding their intrinsic properties and their susceptibility to microbial colonisation. Cultivation assays revealed the presence of similar strains for all stones, but the number of bacteria changed and reached 703.5 CFU/cm² for Courville, 964.5 CFU/cm² for Ditrupa and 254.8 CFU/cm² for Savonnieres. A significant colour change of the surfaces was noticed during the first winter, especially for Savonnieres (ΔE*ab = 18.3). It was associated with a net increase of the chl. a fluorescence and of the pigment content, which suggested a clear growth of phototrophic microorganisms. The Hg porosimetry showed that the porous network of Courville was only slightly impacted by biocolonisation, in contrast to Ditrupa and Savonnieres, where the macropores were obstructed. Savonnieres stone had a weaker bioreceptivity for bacteria than Lutetian stones, but it strongly promoted the colonisation by other microorganisms which could induce more severe bioweathering than on the Lutetian stones.
... This monument, shown in Fig. 2a, was built during the XIth century and is listed UNESCO World Heritage site. The original building materials came from local quarries (Turmel et al. 2014), though its current appearance is the result of a complex history characterized by several phases of construction, transformation, destruction, and restoration. During World War I, the city was heavily damaged due to bombing. ...
... The monument was cleaned, and the elements that could be reused were collected for the rebuilding. Materials from other regions in France were also used in the reconstruction of Reims (Turmel et al. 2014). ...
Temperature and humidity variations influence various weathering processes of historical building stones. The aim of this study is to define the possible micro-climates on a monument in order to identify the recurring stress events, allowing to assess the potential stone weathering. For this purpose, a sensor network was set up on the two towers of the Saint-Remi Basilica of Reims: fourteen i-Buttons recorded temperature and relative humidity for 2 years with a time step of 1 h or 2 min for short measurement campaigns. Two micro-climates were identified: the sunny micro-climate (areas oriented South and West) presenting higher temperatures and lower relative humidity than the shadowed micro-climate (areas oriented North, East, and other shadowed zones). On the micro-climates, three typical days (Sunny, Rainy, and Frost days) were determined and allowed to fragment 1 year in a succession of these days. Short temperature variations (1 ∘C/min) due to cloud cover were also identified during the sunny days, thanks to the shorter time step of 2 min. The stress generated during the typical days could then be estimated. Depending on the repartition of typical days for each micro-climate, some weathering processes could be favored: concentration of stress near the surface on the sunny micro-climate, development of biological colonization, and harsher frost events for the shadowed micro-climate. Taking into account the properties of the main limestones present on the basilica, the weathering on-site could be explained.
... It is a common building stone in Reims (France) and its surroundings ( Fronteau et al. 2010). Actually, the famous Reims Cathedral or the St-Remi Basilica was originally built with Lutetian lime- stones ( Turmel et al. 2014, Fig. 1a, b). One of the main weathering patterns observed on this building stone is the scaling of millimetric layers of stones placed in the capil- lary zone or in elevation, especially when placed as cornice band, column, or statues (ICOMOS, Fig. 1c). ...
As a rule, usually only one face of the building stones of a monument is exposed to climatic variations. Penetration of temperature and humidity stress is unidirectional from the external surface while capillary absorption comes from the bottom part of the accumulation zones such as soil or cornice band. This configuration has to be taken into account in the setting of frost weathering tests in the laboratory. Formation of ice is accompanied by changed volumes and by movements of liquid water due to cryosuction. These phenomena lead to the dilatation of the porous network as assessed by strain gage monitoring. In this study, an experimental setting was developed to simulate the condition of a building stone submitted to frost and water supply by capillary absorption. Strain gages and thermocouples were attached to a limestone sample in order to assess thermal penetration and dilatation changes. Two types of saturation conditions were applied to the sample: water supply only by capillarity and water supply by capillarity after immersion during 48 h. Freeze-thaw cycles of 24-h freezing at − 15 °C and 24-h thawing at + 10 °C were performed. Results showed that deformation perpendicular to the freezing direction was negligible except for the fringe zone where it could reach 6 × 10⁻⁴. In contrast, on both sides of the wet fringe, a deformation parallel to the freezing direction occurred, corresponding to an expansion upon freezing and a contraction upon thawing, with an intensity correlated in both cases to saturation. This original test also showed the importance of the capillary fringe in the frost action on building stones that is not taken into account in classical frost weathering tests. And it is to be noted that the strain gages allowed to measure immediate damage before it reached the inside of the stone and before it could be visually perceived. [Figure not available: see fulltext.].
... The sample was then submitted to a drying by exposition in a chamber where the relative humidity of 33% is controlled by a supersaturated solution of MgCl 2 . Sample is regularly weighted and the evaporation curve expressed as the evolution of δW/S (g cm −2 ) versus time according to the Rousset-Tournier et al. (2003) and Turmel et al. (2014) protocol. ...
An experimental chamber (CIME2) has been specially designed to simulate wet atmospheric deposition on limestones used in Paris cultural heritage. This instrument is a complementary tool to CIME, a previously developed chamber dedicated to the simulation of dry atmospheric deposition on monuments and artifacts. The aim of this paper is to describe CIME2 and characterize the wet deposits produced inside it. Mist (fog), drizzle, and rainfall are differentiated in order to document their ability to saturate the limestones most currently used in Paris monuments: The Saint-Maximin’s limestone, the Liais of Saint-Maximin, and the Chauvigny’s limestone are tested. The comparison between normalized and environmental petrophysical data shows that in the wet deposition simulations, limestones are not systematically water-saturated. Moreover, the realistic experimental conditions chosen favor a more rapid evaporation of the stone water. The quantification of the non-saturation state is a first step that has to be taken into account to improve the geochemical models used to predict the alteration.
... Deciphering the provenance of building stones during the Historical Times remains a challenge. However, this is particularly relevant for three reasons : first, our knowledge of the commercial relationships (Rolett et al. 2015), second, for a better comprehension of supply strategies of ancient construction crafts, linked to economical, technical and aesthetic challenges (Wilkinson et al. 2008; Barra et al. 2009;Brennan et al. 2013;Columbu et al. 2014), and finally the potential use of appropriate stones during restoration of the buildings (Coli et al. 2008;Turmel et al. 2014;Hopkinson et al. 2015). In the last decades, several methods were applied to Belgian limestones to determine/refine the areas/localities of extraction of stones (e.g. ...
We investigate the provenance of the ochre building stones called “Lorraine limestones” used for architectural specific elements of the Saint-Paul Cathedral in Liège (Belgium) between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. A multi-analytical approach, including archives study, petrography and Rare Earth Elements geochemistry, has been performed to characterize the stones used in the church and to compare them with ochre limestones outcropping in the north-east of the Paris Basin. Our study suggests that a very restricted geographical area near the ancient port of Donchery (Ardennes, France) including Dom-le-Mesnil and Hannogne ancient quarries of Bajocian limestones (Middle Jurassic) should clearly be regarded as the potential origin location for the stones used in the Saint-Paul Cathedral.
... The Lutetian building stones from Reims surroundings are fine micritic limestones extracted in numerous sites in a twenty-kilometre-long quarrying area (Devos et al. 2010;Fronteau et al. 2010). Within the various quality of building stones coming from these middle to upper Lutetian formations (Eocene), the ''Courville stone'' is the most famous and was used until a few years ago for monument restorations (Turmel et al. 2014). The Courville stone (termed Cv further in this article) is a russet microporous building stone, which can be classified as a wackestone/packstone (Dunham 1962) or as biomicrite to biomicrosparite (Folk 1959). ...
... The Savonnières stone has been quarried since antiquity in the ''Oolite vacuolaire'' formation from the end of Tithonian (Jurassic) units. This world renowned limestone was frequently observed in buildings from the XIXth to XXth centuries or proposed for restoration works all over the western part of Europe (Turmel et al. 2014;Laycock et al. 2008). The Savonnières stone (termed Sv further in this article) is a grey macroporous building stone. ...
Atmospheric pollutants are changing due to policies aiming at attenuating climate change. Some of the results of these measures are the current inversion on the SO2/NOx proportion and the pH increase of acid rains to 5 in some areas. The aim of this study was to have a better understanding of the relation between the microstructural and chemical characteristics of carbonated stones and their
response to acid rain effects. This work also compared the response of natural stones as opposed to an artificial stone used in their replacement in the Orval Abbey (Belgium).
Three natural and one reconstituted stones were selected. Nitric and sulphuric acidic solutions at pH = 5 were tested. For each solution, two tests of ‘‘passive immersion’’ and ‘‘active immersion’’ were conducted. Variations in weight, porosity, dissolved concentrations, colour and surface topography were measured. Stone SEM observations were additionally performed.
The results indicate that active immersion is more effective than the passive one. The pore connectivity plays a key role in the stone dissolution and entails a difference between passive and active conditions. The different effect of nitric and sulphuric acids is related to the stone type. In spite of the initial presence of sulphur, the artificial stone appears less sensitive than the natural stone it replaces, due to its low pore connectivity and the concentrated distribution of iron oxides.
... This information was gathered in a georeferenced database named 'survey information'. Besides this, a second database was created, collecting the petrographical information and physical properties of the observed building materials: e.g. total porosity, water uptake, mercury porosimetry and X-ray micro-computed tomography (Cnudde & Boone 2013;Turmel et al. 2014). This way, two types of databases were created (Fig. 3). ...
... The GISdatabase would be enriched by redefining the durability for each stone with weathering assessments for specific buildings. This approach could be completed with photography and descriptions of façades (Inkpen et al. 2001;Delegou et al. 2013) or with experimental data, such as petrophysical data, i.e. mercury porosimetry, tomography, salt susceptibility or freeze/thaw cycles (Cnudde & Boone 2013;Dewanckele et al. 2013;Turmel et al. 2014). In turn, this would allow the calculation of the percentage of deteriorated surfaces and the weathering rate for each building material (André et al. 2014). ...
The Pays rémois in the eastern Paris Basin is an administrative area of 1394 km2; in the surroundings of Reims (France). Two main geological substrata are separated by the Île-de-France cuesta: the Tertiary substratum in the western part is composed of various types of geomaterials (clay, sandstone, limestone, burrstone), whereas the substratum in the eastern part is composed only of Cretaceous Chalk. A field survey in each commune of the Pays rémois identified 26 building materials documented in a Geographic Information System database (GIS-database) that includes information about them (lithology, petrographical and petrophysical data, weathering) and the corresponding buildings (e.g. town, georeferenced data, building type, position on the façade). The spatial analysis of the building materials’ distribution (Standard Deviational Ellipse) with GIS identifies their uses and the criteria established for the selection of the materials: availability, efficiency, workability and durability. Some lithologies were preferred for particular buildings or selected for their efficiency in specific positions. The study also defines the relation between the stones’ origin (local and non-local stones) and their application. This database is useful to establish stone replacement strategies in the Pays rémois.
... A search for new stone resources is discussed in the paper by Turmel et al. (2013), with reference to the ongoing restoration of Reims Cathedral (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) in NE France, one of the great Gothic cathedrals and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The recent closure of the last of the quarries of the local Courville stone (a Lutetian limestone) has resulted in a search for new resources. ...
... A search for new stone resources is discussed in the paper by Turmel et al. (2013), with reference to the ongoing restoration of Reims Cathedral (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) in NE France, one of the great Gothic cathedrals and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The recent closure of the last of the quarries of the local Courville stone (a Lutetian limestone) has resulted in a search for new resources. ...
