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Some hypothetical examples of nonspatial samples, with selected elements in gray: (a) simple random sample of pottery sherds (the twelfth sherd selected twice), (b) 25% systematic sample of projectile points arranged in arbitrary order, and (c) stratified random sample of sediment volumes for flotation.
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After a heyday in the 1970s and 1980s, probability sampling became much less visible in archaeological literature as it came under assault from the post-processual critique and the widespread adoption of "full-coverage survey." After 1990, published discussion of probability sampling rarely strayed from sample-size issues in analyses of artifacts a...
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Context 1
... elements need not be spatial (Figure 2), but the fact that archaeologists can rarely specify populations of artifacts or "ecofacts" in advance often forces them to employ cluster sampling. Cluster samples occur whenever the population of interest consists of items such as artifacts, charcoal, or bone fragments, but the population actually sampled is a spatial one, such as a population of 2 × 2 m squares (Mueller 1975a). ...
Context 2
... elements need not be spatial (Figure 2), but the fact that archaeologists can rarely specify populations of artifacts or "ecofacts" in advance often forces them to employ cluster sampling. Cluster samples occur whenever the population of interest consists of items such as artifacts, charcoal, or bone fragments, but the population actually sampled is a spatial one, such as a population of 2 × 2 m squares (Mueller 1975a). ...
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Le Valcamonica (100 000 gravures estimées) et le mont Bego (36 000 gravures) sont les deux principales concentrations d’art rupestre pour la Méditerranée occidentale au cours de la Préhistoire récente. Bien que des recherches y aient été menées depuis de nombreuses années : au Valcamonica par E. Anati (1960, 2008) et au mont Bego par H. de Lumley e...
Citations
... Utilizing the randomization principle, the researcher employed probability sampling to select student participants, ensuring that each member of the population had an equal chance of being chosen (Banning, 2021). Given that all EFL students at University L were enrolled in intact classes, the researcher opted for cluster sampling-a probability sampling approach-and selected one group from each of the 57 intact classes. ...
This study investigated how peer instruction integrated with process writing influences EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students’ writing competence in a Chinese university. It randomly chose one intact class of non-English majors to implement the peer instruction and process writing approaches. The researcher divided the class into seven sub-groups to fulfill the writing tasks smoothly. Employing a qualitative research design, this study utilized observation methods to collect data. Three non-participant observers were invited with the researcher to observe the writing sessions among the sub-groups in the intact class. Thematic analysis of observation data showed that students effectively used peer instruction skills during all stages of process writing: planning, generating ideas, translating, editing, and revising. Integrating peer instruction with process writing served as a positive catalyst, motivating EFL students. Following Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) principle, this integration significantly broadened students’ ZPD. By working within this zone, students unlocked their full developmental potential, surpassing their current abilities, leading to a more efficient and effective writing process.
... Discussion of sampling strategies has been scrutinized for many years (see van der Veen 1984;Hastorf 1992, 1995;d'Alpoim Guedes and Spengler 2014;Diehl 2017;Banning 2021), as has work on morphometrics such as discussions on the changes in seed size under charring conditions or under domestication (Boardman and Jones 1990;Smith and Jones 1990;Mangafa et al. 2001;Jupe 2003;Colledge 2004;Willcox 2004;Margaritis and Jones 2006;Maass and Usongo 2007;Purugganan and Fuller 2011;García-Granero 2015), but rarely has seed quantification (describing the 'bits' present and how to count them) and quantification terminology been subjected to scrutiny. In the few cases it has been explored, it tends to focus on 'staple' cereals, predominantly from the Near East or Americas (e.g. ...
The way archaeobotanists name and quantify seed fragments is a determinant step not only in the interpretation of a given macrobotanical assemblage, but also in the degree of comparability across different sites. However, seed terminology and quantification have yet not been standardised among scholars but rely on the various geographical and laboratory traditions, as well as specific research needs and circumstances. This has created two major biases: first, the main focus has been put on plants of economic importance, specially Near Eastern and European cereals (barley, wheat, rye and oats); and second, while there has been notable discussion about quantification methods such as ubiquities, densities, proportions, or more complex multivariate statistics, there is often little explicit discussion of the actual first counting stage (i.e. how one goes from things under a microscope to things in raw data or how the Minimum Number of Individuals -MNI- is calculated). In the case of South Asian archaeobotany, the economic role of other cereal species (e.g. millets, rice) and non-cereal crops (e.g. pulses, oilseeds), as well as the usually high fragmentation state in which macrobotanical remains are found, lead us to reflect on the need to establish a more accurate and comparable quantification methodology in the region. We believe that applying this to all seed fragments will also be an important tool to better understand the role of wild taxa (e.g. fruits) in ancient diets and improve the potential contribution of weeds to disentangle past agricultural systems. In this paper, we propose a new work-in-progress terminology and counting method which, far from concluded, is intended to be a starting point for future fruitful debate and development.
... A key issue in archaeological sampling is that many archaeologists simply do not describe their sampling procedures clearly and often use confusing terminology (Banning, 2020). Common problems include using "sample" to designate sample elements instead of the whole sample, using "systematic sampling" for samples that are not systematic, and claiming that samples are "random" without identifying any randomized procedures or saying whether sampling was with or without replacement. ...
... After decades in which archaeologists have arguably neglected formal sampling (Banning, 2020), currently available software and statistical methods offer a great deal of potential for sampling in archaeology. Since archaeologists routinely have to draw inferences about whole populations, such as sites, regions, or assemblages, on the basis of small subsets of those populations, we should expect sampling, and especially probability sampling, to have a major role in the profession. ...
While purposive and convenience samples have their place, many archaeological inferences depend on probability sampling for their accuracy and precision. Sample designs should fit the circumstances and research questions but, in archaeology, these should often entail stratified sampling or cluster sampling. Some of the key issues in probability sampling are missing data, describing the sampling procedures adequately, using the correct statistics for the type of sample, and avoiding the temptation to mix the data from probability and non-probability samples indiscriminantly.
... There is a growing literature about various sampling methods (e.g., Asch and Mueller 1975;Neff 1993;Orton 2002;Richardson and Gajewski 2003;Drennan 2004;Shennan 2004;Peregrine 2019;Gliozzo 2020;Banning 2021), however, there is also a consensus that each archaeological case study has its particularities (see also abovementioned restrictions) and therefore, not all projects can conform to a single sampling scenario. As the ceramic samples selected for analysis eventually will determine how confidently (i.e., data/evidence-based) we can answer our research questions, it is our responsibility as researchers at least to include explicit explanations to all the potential biases in the Sampling procedure dataset, and how these can affect archaeological inferences, as well as how they might be overcome in the future. ...
Animal remains represent some of the most common finds at archaeological sites. Together with plant remains they constitute the most direct evidence for subsistence, as well as economic and social organisation in the past. As it is the case with the recovery of all archaeological materials discussed in this guide, the choices made in the field concerning sampling, recovery, documentation, recording and storage of animal remains heavily affect the quantity and quality of data extracted from them through study and analysis. This chapter serves as a basic practical guide for field archaeologists excavating such remains, focusing specifically on the island of Cyprus. The particularities of the island, including climate and environment and their effects on animal bone preservation are taken into consideration. Rather than being a comprehensive text on zooarchaeology in general, this guide focuses on methods used in the field for the recovery of bones, as well as their post-excavation treatment, analysis, and storage in order to facilitate and enhance their study by specialists.
... There is a growing literature about various sampling methods (e.g., Asch and Mueller 1975;Neff 1993;Orton 2002;Richardson and Gajewski 2003;Drennan 2004;Shennan 2004;Peregrine 2019;Gliozzo 2020;Banning 2021), however, there is also a consensus that each archaeological case study has its particularities (see also abovementioned restrictions) and therefore, not all projects can conform to a single sampling scenario. As the ceramic samples selected for analysis eventually will determine how confidently (i.e., data/evidence-based) we can answer our research questions, it is our responsibility as researchers at least to include explicit explanations to all the potential biases in the Sampling procedure dataset, and how these can affect archaeological inferences, as well as how they might be overcome in the future. ...
... In this sense, the landscape is understood as a sampling universe. As it is unfeasible to implement full coverage in practice, sampling techniques allow us to determine how much terrain should be covered by a surveyor or the collection sample carried from the field to the laboratory to have representative results from a statistical point of view (Banning, 2021). For the survey, an 8-km long strip facing the coast was selected for an initial field survey campaign. ...
The territory of Tipasa, an iconic UNESCO landscape that comprises the ancient city of Mauretania and its Royal Mausoleum, has never been systematically investigated. The exception may be Gsell’s archaeological atlas of Algeria, compiled more than a century ago (Gsell, 1911). Since 2021, the TIPASA Project, a Spanish-Algerian survey program, was organized to shed light on this ill-studied ancient city and its territory. The survey approaches the subject from both the “site” and “off-site” perspectives, using tools such as remote sensing, field survey, and material culture, as well as an education program for Algerian students. This research is essential to understanding the part played by Punic, Hellenistic, Mauretanian, and Roman agents in creating the territory. The research methods and conceptual framework emphasize the particularities of North African cities and the creation of African-led networks in Antiquity across the Mediterranean, particularly the connections with the Iberian Peninsula before and after the imposition of Roman administrative structures.
... Komunikasi sangat menentukan keberhasilan pencapaian tujuan dari implementasi kebijakan publik. Selain itu, kebijakan yang dikomunikasikan pun harus tepat, akurat dan konsisten (Banning, 2021 Keberhasilan sebuah kebijakan dapat dilihat dari komunikasi yang ada. Kebijakan harus disampaikan kepada pihak-pihak yang terkait, sehingga informasi yang disampaikan harus akurat. ...
This research was motivated by observational data that showed the promotion and level of the Functional Position of the Pamong Praja Police (JF Pol PP) in the Pamong Praja and Fire Police Unit of Trenggalek Regency was not following the RB Regulation number 4 of 2014. The purpose of this study was to determine the inhibiting factors that resulted in the process of promotion and promotion to the rank of the Pamong Praja Police Functional Position. The type of research used in this study is a descriptive qualitative approach using the theoretical method of George Edward III, which is based on 4 (four) aspects, namely communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structure. The source of this research data is the Functional Officer of the Civil Service Police in the Civil Service and Fire Police Unit of Trenggalek Regency. The results showed that the process of promotion and promotion was still not following the periodization due to the lack of understanding of the profile of the position concerned. Among them, most of the functional officers of the civil service police still have not conducted an inventory of the activities carried out, resulting in difficulties in obtaining a Credit Number Determination (PAK) which is the main requirement in the promotion process and promotion. From the data, it is recommended that functional officials of the civil service police understand the profile of the position better to support the future career path.
... As such, we opted for an opportunistic survey approach guided by local community members. We recognise that, unlike probabilistic or systematic sampling (Banning,[4]), this survey approach carries inherent bias, such that the survey outcome is in no way representative of the overall raw material distribution. However, given the limited prior information regarding the raw materials, especially for chert, as well as other logistical constraints, including very poor surface visibility due to dense vegetation cover, relying on local community knowledge was the best solution to obtain the samples for our study purposes. ...
At Liang Bua, the type site of Homo floresiensis on the Indonesian island of Flores, the stone artefact assemblages are dominated by two raw materials, qualitatively classified as chert and silicified tuff in previous studies. Field observations describe both stone types as locally abundant and of good flaking quality, but no systematic analysis has yet been carried out to characterise their nature. In this study, we conducted the first geological, mechanical, and quantitative assessment of these two raw materials using a suite of analytical approaches. Our results show that the two stone types are mineralogically alike in composition and derive from fossiliferous limestone that had undergone diagenetic silica replacement, but they clearly differ from one another geochemically. Therefore, the ‘chert’ and ‘silicified tuff’ categories used in previous studies are more aptly described as silica-dominated (i.e., SiO 2 -dominated) nodular chert and iron-rich (i.e., Fe 2 O 3 -rich) nodular chert, respectively. We discuss the implications of our results on the shift in raw material utilisation patterns at Liang Bua that occurred after ~ 46 ka and coincided with the arrival of Homo sapiens at the site.
... However, the business-as-usual systematic survey methods, such as probabilistic sampling (cf. Banning, 2021), are also hardly applicable due to the varied topographic conditions of this region (e.g., Al-Jahwari, 2008;Cable, 2012; see Section 2). Thus, appropriate survey methods are required according to research questions and topographical conditions. ...
... Meanwhile, the topography is not suitable for full-coverage surveys (cf. Banning, 2021). Therefore, to reconstruct the archaeological landscapes of this district, it is necessary to connect and integrate several methodologies. ...
The highly‐elevated and rugged topography of the Al‐Ḥajar Mountains in Northern Oman requires a topographically‐optimised survey methodology. To reconstruct the archaeological landscapes in the southern piedmont area of the Tanūf District, we applied a combined ground survey and satellite imagery analysis. In the narrow canyon, we travelled towards visible caves on the cliffs and cairns on the ridges and recorded all encountered sites on the way. In the open floodplain and surrounding hills, we visited all visible features after scanning them from higher viewpoints. We utilised satellite imagery to complement inaccessible sites. Accordingly, we identified 23 sites from the Early Bronze Age to the Early Islamic period through ground surveys, and an additional nine sites through satellite imagery analysis. In our qualitative evaluation, this combined method was effective enough to reconstruct the archaeological landscapes of the survey area.
... Landscape archaeology, defined as a type of research based on systemic surface survey and that results in quantifiable datasets of high quality (Banning, 2002(Banning, , 2021, has started to be practiced in southeastern Arabia only in recent years. While in other parts of Western Asia landscape archaeology has established itself as an important method for mapping archaeological remains from the 1960s onwards and analysis has shifted to the longue durée changes in particular landscapes and the comparative assessment of trajectories or (de)urbanisation across regions (Barker et al., 2007;Wilkinson et al., 2014), the situation in southeastern Arabia is markedly different. ...
... Landscape archaeology, defined as a type of research based on systemic surface survey and that results in quantifiable datasets of high quality (Banning, 2002(Banning, , 2021, has started to be practiced in southeastern Arabia only in recent years. While in other parts of Western Asia landscape archaeology has established itself as an important method for mapping archaeological remains from the 1960s onwards and analysis has shifted to the longue durée changes in particular landscapes and the comparative assessment of trajectories or (de)urbanisation across regions (Barker et al., 2007;Wilkinson et al., 2014), the situation in southeastern Arabia is markedly different. ...
Landscape archaeology, as a type of research based on a systemic surface survey and that results in quantifiable datasets of high quality, has started to be practiced in southeastern Arabia only in recent years. In this paper, I will briefly review the short history of landscape archaeology in the area and its relevance. I will then present the approach and methods used in the Wadi al Jizzi Archaeological Project and discuss some of the results obtained to discuss both the potential and problems of the data that the project generated. In particular, I will focus on ephemeral sites and assemblages, data quality and data representativity.
