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Mortar is of fundamental importance for the building technology. It is used to bind together masonry units and ease the building process. Several building techniques evolved to take advantage of the capacity of mortars to improve cohesiveness and form sound structures. In this paper, I discuss how lime and gypsum mortars were employed from the Anti...
Citations
... Continued research within the field has the possibility to explore new formwork materials and technologies, which will contribute to the implementation of more effective and sustainable practices in concrete construction. produce concrete without additional CO 2 emissions [7]. As construction methodologies and formwork systems advanced, new materials and designs were incorporated to improve the efficiency, safety, and quality of concrete construction. ...
This study provides a comprehensive review of the engineering challenges of formwork in concrete construction. The paper investigates different formwork systems, their design based on form pressure, and the difficulties of form stripping. Alternative binders are gaining more and more interest by opening new opportunities for sustainable concrete materials and their impact on form pressure and concrete setting is also investigated in this paper. The discussion involves several engineering challenges such as sustainability, safety, and economy, while it also explores previous case studies, and discusses future trends in formwork design. The findings pinpoint that choosing an appropriate formwork system depends significantly on project-specific constraints and that the development of innovative materials and technologies presents significant benefits but also new challenges, including the need for training and regulation. Current trends in formwork design and use show promising possibilities for the integration of digital technologies and the development of sustainable and ‘smart’ formwork systems. Continued research within the field has the possibility to explore new formwork materials and technologies, which will contribute to the implementation of more effective and sustainable practices in concrete construction.
... The elaboration of the research is based on the identification of certain issues arising from the topic and the study of related sources. Within the framework of the literature, in particular, the issues were considered in the following directions: interrelations between structural and artistic solutions in architecture [1,[11][12][13][14]; general issues of ensuring the strength of structural systems and work efficiency [15,16]; issues related to masonry and its structure [17][18][19][20][21]; questions about the composition of the core in three-layer walls, binding materials and their development, differentiation of the core, as well as its effect on masonry and overall structure [12,16,21,22]; measures to ensure structure unity of the three-layer wall in Roman, Byzantine, and Syrian structures [12,13,[23][24][25][26][27][28]; the process of gradual evolution of three-layer walls in Armenia [29][30][31][32]; peculiarities of "midis" masonry, the composition of its core, its homogeneity and monolithic nature in the structure of the structural elements [30,31,33]; general description of the structure of Armenian medieval churches [33][34][35][36][37][38][39] and typological classifications [30,40]; some structural peculiarities of Roman, Iranian, Syrian, Byzantine, Italian and Armenian architecture and their parallels [7,11,23,24,31,41,42]; general issues concerning the use of materials in structures [7]; examples of structures made of a single material in the case of brick [5][6][7], in the case of wood [3,4], in the case of reinforced concrete [8,9]; generalizations related to technological research of monuments [21,28,[43][44][45][46]. ...
... The elaboration of the research is based on the identification of certain issues arising from the topic and the study of related sources. Within the framework of the literature, in particular, the issues were considered in the following directions: interrelations between structural and artistic solutions in architecture [1,[11][12][13][14]; general issues of ensuring the strength of structural systems and work efficiency [15,16]; issues related to masonry and its structure [17][18][19][20][21]; questions about the composition of the core in three-layer walls, binding materials and their development, differentiation of the core, as well as its effect on masonry and overall structure [12,16,21,22]; measures to ensure structure unity of the three-layer wall in Roman, Byzantine, and Syrian structures [12,13,[23][24][25][26][27][28]; the process of gradual evolution of three-layer walls in Armenia [29][30][31][32]; peculiarities of "midis" masonry, the composition of its core, its homogeneity and monolithic nature in the structure of the structural elements [30,31,33]; general description of the structure of Armenian medieval churches [33][34][35][36][37][38][39] and typological classifications [30,40]; some structural peculiarities of Roman, Iranian, Syrian, Byzantine, Italian and Armenian architecture and their parallels [7,11,23,24,31,41,42]; general issues concerning the use of materials in structures [7]; examples of structures made of a single material in the case of brick [5][6][7], in the case of wood [3,4], in the case of reinforced concrete [8,9]; generalizations related to technological research of monuments [21,28,[43][44][45][46]. ...
... The widespread use of brick vaults with lime mortar began in Roman times and later developed in Byzantium. According to Vitti, builders in Greece used brick vaults as an alternative to concrete vaults, as thin layers of mortar between the bricks attained the necessary strength much faster than the entire mass of concrete [16]. ...
The article touches upon the interrelations between the structural elements and the building structure in architecture. The aim of the work is to generalize the peculiarities of “midis” masonry formation and to reveal its influence in the evolution process of the structure of Armenian medieval churches by a comparative analysis of different characteristics. In the work: the development of three-layer “midis” masonry was systematized, the phenomenon of shell structure and spatial integrity in the churches of the 4th-14th centuries was highlighted, the tendencies of evolution of the masonry monolithic nature and church structure integrity were revealed by a comparative analysis of volumetric and planning characteristics of different churches. The results allowed to formulate a certain sequence of interactions in different characteristics, which confirmed the relationship between the evolution of the masonry and the structure of the churches: the evolution of “midis” masonry led to the structural monolithic nature of the walls and the forms derived from it, which in turn led to the integrity of the stone building structure. The results can be useful in further research covering structural-compositional interrelations, including both heritage and modern architecture studies.
... Therefore, limes are eco-efficient construction material to explore. A study performed by Vitti (2021) and Zhang et al. (2018) showcases the main advantage of lime over cement mortars: a higher potential to reabsorb CO 2 which accounts for approximately 18% in a time frame of 3 months. According to the stoichiometric analysis performed by Jami et al. (2019), lime-hemp concrete sequestrates approximately 470 kg CO 2 /m 3 . ...
The characteristics and potential for carbon dioxide capture and storage of the fifteenth-century lime mortar samples from City Palace, Udaipur, India, were studied. Physiochemical analysis followed by XRD, FTIR, TGA-DSC, and FE-SEM was performed. The findings demonstrate that calcium-rich eminently hydraulic mortars were used with a binder/aggregate (B/ Ag) ratio of about 1:2.8±0.42. Mineralogy identified load-bearing phases: aragonite, vaterite, and calcite with 45±5% clay minerals. Absorption and stretching bands detected by FTIR at 1631 cm −1 and 2954 cm −1 corroborate the inclusion of plant organics. All samples showed aragonite around 870 cm −1 , which can be traced back to bonded CO 2 and the subsequent carbonation throughout the age of the structure. TGA-DSC validated XRD and FE-SEM analysis exhibited 18.66±3.40% weight loss at >600 °C, indicating calcite decomposition and CO 2 release with CO 2 /H 2 O ratio of 3.31 to 3.66. From the historic example, a debate has been sparked about using lime mortars in contemporary construction to mitigate the carbon footprint with inherent attributes.
... For centuries, masonry structures have shown a proven adaptability to new occupations and even resilience. Up till now, old masonry structures are still a valid research subject throughout all of Europe as they can still be found in existing structures (Bertolesi, et al., 2019;Vitti, 2021). Figure 1 shows some examples of repurposed masonry buildings in Europe. ...
New structures are designed for a specified design working life according to (EN 1990, 2015). Facing sustainability requirements, designers need to account for extended lifetime usage beyond the original purpose of the building. Increasing the spans of the floors is one way to do so. Though, it significantly limits the use of masonry structures. (EN 1996-1-1, 2012) states that the designer should account for out-of-plane eccentricities of the masonry wall. Annex C of this document allows for a simplification with a fully restrained connection between floor and wall elements. Therefore, the eccentricity is directly related to the span of the neighbouring elements. Though, in the same annex, it is acknowledged that this is too conservative so a reduction is allowed. Nevertheless, they are not able to implement the stiffness of mortar joints or bearing paths. To take these interface materials into account, an easy-athand analytical approach is developed and tested.
... For instance, Vasari (16th century) recommended the addition of gypsum on the last mortar layer to help the setting of the plaster [64]. Even Vitti [65] stated that in lime-gypsum mixed mortars, the advantages of one compensates the disadvantages of the other. This again indicates that a tempera technique was used for the wall paintings rather than a fresco one, in which a lime mortar would have been used instead. ...
The research carried out on the wall paintings of Hernán Pérez del Pulgar’s Palace chapel in Granada (Spain) was aimed at determining its historical–artistic, stylistic, technical, and compositional aspects. For this, a 16th century frieze and an 18th century pendentive were studied. The mineralogical, chemical, and textural characterization of the constituent materials and the study of the state of conservation of the paintings have helped to determine the pictorial technique used, identify the nature of the salts present in the paintings, and other pathologies including a dormant fungal attack. To this end, optical microscopy (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Field emission scanning electron microscopy with microanalysis (FESEM-EDS), and micro-Raman spectroscopy (MRS) were used. The information obtained helps clarify important aspects of the painting technique used, laying a basis to ensure effective and suitable conservation and restoration measures on the paintings that will ensure their durability over time.
... A minor amount of gypsum was detected in sample S-3. As a type of building material, gypsum has been widely used as an artificial binder in the Mediterranean area and Europe since Antiquity (Vitti, 2021). In ancient China, gypsum has reportedly been used in traditional Chinese medicine (F. ...
Lime mortars have taken an important role in constructing ancient Chinese masonry structures, including city walls, buildings, and tombs. A tomb built with lime mortars and stones belonging a Ming high-rank official Xu Jie was discovered in Huzhou City of China. Eight different samples from Xu Jie’s tomb, representing four types of lime-mortar based materials: joint mortar between stone bricks, bedding mortar, grouting mortar, and plaster mortars were collected for analysis and comparison. The characterization of the construction materials has therefore become of primary importance. The function of each mortar was reported and studies into the micro-textural features and mineralogical compositions of those mortars were performed via a multi-analytical approach. The joint mortars were all found to be aerial lime mortars with predominately lime. The bedding mortar was found to consist of lime, soil and sand, typical of a tabia mortar. The grouting mortar was found to consist of lime and ground contact metamorphosed limestone. Analysis of plaster sample taken from the roof of the main tomb identified the presence of calcium stearate/palmitate, indicating the usage of plant-based Tung oil as an additive. The analytical results will promote our understanding of Ming architectural technology and craftsmanship, and provide critical information for the conservation of Xu Jie’s tomb.
... In this regard, gypsum was used in the horizontal and vertical structural joints of construction materials. Gypsum was added to the lime to have a mixture of so-called gypsum concretes, and this technology was also found in tell Amarana in Minia [46]. Roman hydraulic lime mortar from the era of Emperor Nero (50-54 CE) was detected in NT 6, which consists of lime, quartz, pottery fragments, and clay additions. ...
Nero’s Temple at El-Ashmonein archaeological site, in Minia (middle of Egypt), is considered one of the most impor‑
tant of all temples of Nero. This temple dates back to 1520 BC–1075 BC in the New Kingdom and was reused in the
era of Nero (the Fifth Emperor of Rome). The temple construction materials are severely decayed from surrounding
environmental impacts, especially contaminated water sources. The main objective of this paper is to identify the con‑
struction materials of Nero’s Temple and their decay by-products. To achieve them, X-ray difraction, micro X-ray fuo‑
rescence spectrometry, and portable Raman spectroscopy were utilized to identify the compositions and alteration
by-products/degradation compounds (mainly saline eforescence and crusts) from the construction materials, such
as limestone walls, and structural mortars of the temple. In addition, a polarizing microscope was used to identify the
minerals inside the construction materials and reveal the alteration of the minerals because of decay. Digital micros‑
copy and scanning electron microscopy with EDS were used to detect decayed materials’ morphological features.
Finally, results showed that the main decay factor is salt attack (chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates,
and bicarbonates) for all architectural and structural elements of the temple, which have been carried to the construc‑
tion materials from various sources of contaminated water (canal, sewage, and agricultural water).
... Mortars are an anthropogenic material used since ancient times to construct buildings [80][81][82]. Throughout history, masonry mortars have been obtained by mixing a binder material in the presence of water with various aggregates and additives, the latter having the role of improving the hardening properties of the mortar. ...
This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of the literature on the definition and 16 development of the concepts of heritage and sustainability. The harmful effects of various pollutants 17 on the materials widely used in the construction of monuments / buildings, which are part of the 18 national and international cultural heritage, are also highlighted. In addition, the paper draws at-19 tention to modern techniques for investigating the composition and diagnosis of alteration of build-20 ings materials with the focus on stone, limestone, and mortars/concrete. The present research also 21 emphasizes that in the case of heritage buildings, different skills are needed not only related to 22 heritage conservation and rehabilitation, but also skills related to heritage planning processes, and 23 to sustainable constructions. For exemplification, the manuscript proposes specific conservation 24 principles, based on the case of Brașov city, located in the heart of Romania and being par excellence 25 a medieval town, with representative buildings for that period. 26
... The samples P2M1 and P2M2, from Islamic period presents traces of gypsum. Gypsum-lime mortars are known for the same period in other places in Spain and Portugal (Genestar and Pons, 2003;Freire et al, 2008;Vitti, 2021). However, minor amount of this mineral can probably be better explained by chemical weathering products (Lanas et al., 2005). ...
The present work shows the results of the chemical, mineralogical and colorimetric characterisation of the ancient mortars from Silla Islamic Tower (Valencia, Spain) and Fuengirola Castle (Malaga, Spain). The samples were characterised from the mineralogical point of view by X-ray diffractometry and mid-infrared attenuated total reflection spectroscopy, while portable energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry were employed to obtain the concentrations of major and trace elements, including rare earth elements. Data analysis through multivariate statistics was used to evaluate features to discriminate among the mortars from the different construction phases and to classify undated samples. Finally, colour features of powdered and intact samples were characterised by smartphone photo processing and with a Vis-spectrophotometer as reference technique to evaluate the effectiveness of smartphones for archaeometric studies of historic mortars. The analytical results permitted the classification of most undated samples from Silla and evidenced the presence of peculiar chemical characteristics in some samples from Fuengirola. Imaging data for powdered samples showed a good potential as a reliable, cheap and non-destructive fast method to char-acterise mortars and carry out the study of construction phases in historical complexes.
... In terms of environmental resistance, the SL mortar has been shown to have the best resistance to water and alkali, and CL mortar the best sulphate resistance. It should be noted, however, that while the research into the lime mortars is conducted on a regular basis in connection to the renovations and historical site studies [19,20], the research into lime as a constituent of cement-lime mortar is less popular [21]. ...
This article presents research on selected physical and mechanical properties of cement-based plasters and masonry mortars with consistency-improving additives, namely, traditional hydrated lime and a plasticizing and aerating mixture (APA), which, in practice, is often considered to be a lime substitute. Comparative analysis of the properties of mortars with alternative additives—lime or APA—was carried out, taking into consideration possible effects of cement, as two types of Portland cement were used for the research. For fresh mortar, mixture consistency, air content, resistance to segregation, and water retention were determined. Tests on hardened mortars included tests of porosity and impermeability, depth of penetration of water under pressure, drying shrinkage, as well as compressive and bending strength, modulus of elasticity, and adhesion of mortars to the base. In addition, research has shown that cement–lime mortars and cement mortars with APA admixture of similar consistency in the fresh state are characterized by significantly different properties. The results show, in most of the features analyzed, more favorable properties of mortars with the use of traditional lime. For shrinkage only, the use of admixture turned out to be more advantageous.
