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Soil bulk density (g cm⁻³) under the different water regimes at different soil depths determined after the 3rd year rice harvest of established rice–rapeseed rotations. CF, continuous flooding; AWD, alternate wetting and drying irrigation; RFL, rain-fed with limited irrigation to avoid serious drought. Presented values are means (n = 3) and error bars denote the standard errors. Bars with a different lowercase letter differ significantly among treatments (P < 0.05) according to the Student–Newman–Keuls test
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Objectives
When addressing water shortage in rice production, we need to consider the influence of water-saving irrigation methods on soil organic carbon stocks (SOC). MethodsA typical rice–rapeseed rotation was irrigated using 3 different strategies in rice growing season over a 3 year period: continuous flooding (CF), alternate wetting and drying...
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Citations
... AWD has the potential to influence soil physical conditions, such as promoting macropore development and providing a slight improvement in soil mechanical impedance. While AWD does not directly affect soil organic matter or organic carbon supply [58][59][60], it does increase the availability of nitrogen (in the form of NO3 -), phosphorus, and potassium in the rhizospheric soil of rice [35]. Furthermore, the implementation of partly aerobic rice system or PARS (periodic aerobic conditions in the soil are produced by water management techniques such as intermittent flooding or AWD) and changes in phytohormone concentrations (increases abscisic acid (ABA) but decreases cytokinin and gibberellin) can enhance the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) of rice [36,61]. ...
Rice serves as a fundamental sustenance for approximately half of the global population, particularly in Asia. Nevertheless, the cultivation of rice demands a substantial water supply, and the challenges associated with water deficits have been exacerbated by irregular rainfall patterns induced by global warming. Consequently, there is a critical need to reassess irrigation techniques to effectively tackle these issues. In this comprehensive review, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) method was employed to systematically explore literature on irrigation techniques aimed at fostering sustainable water management in rice cultivation systems. The primary components of the framework encompass water consumption and water-related characteristics, soil-related characteristics, and plant-related characteristics, encompassing relevant components and indicators. Two alternative irrigation methods, namely alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and saturated soil irrigation (SSI), have been proposed to enhance water use efficiency (WUE) in rice cultivation compared to traditional continuous flooding (CF). These alternative irrigation methods do not adversely affect rice yield, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Furthermore, these alternative irrigation approaches have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly methane emissions, in rice production. This review underscores the significance of data on alternate irrigation systems, providing valuable insights for researchers and policymakers in formulating strategies that align at every level for practical implementation. This is crucial as it is relevant to multiple organizations and stakeholders. Moreover, in the face of inclement weather conditions resulting from climate change, the study's findings indicate that research on farmers' adaptation, plant stress, and resilience within the rice cultivation system is still in its nascent stages. This highlights the pressing need for further exploration and advancement in these areas to develop effective strategies for coping with the challenges posed by climate change. ARTICLE HISTORY
... This experiment showed that controlled irrigation in paddy fields reduced the SOC and SOCS (Table 4) compared with flooded irrigation, which is consistent with the findings of Livsey et al. (2019) and Xu et al. (2017). Frequently changing soil moisture conditions will increase the SOC mineralization and reduce BD, which decreases SOCS. ...
... This is possibly because biomass accumulated in wet years declined more rapidly in dry years for communities with higher soil organic carbon contents (Fig. S3). In addition, occasional precipitation may increase microbial activity due to the priming effect (Jones et al., 2018;Xu et al., 2017), which allows microorganisms to use more organic carbon. Thus, the communities with high soil clay contents have lower soil organic carbon contents, which instead improves the stability of these communities in regions with aridity > 0.88 ( Fig. 4d-f). ...
Climate change and human activities are changing the structure and function of dryland ecosystems at unprecedented rate, thus threatening the stability of ecosystems. The stability of dryland ecosystems is vital for ecological security and local livelihoods. However, the mechanisms that underlie ecosystem stability in drylands remain uncertain due to limited field data from regional studies. Combined with transect survey in the drylands of China along the aridity gradient and remote sensing data, we characterized community temporal stability and identified its driving mechanisms along the aridity gradient. The results showed the community temporal stability in drylands of China revealed a U-shaped curve with increasing aridity and its major driving mechanisms shifted at an aridity level of ~0.88. In regions where aridity is below 0.88, increasing precipitation and species richness resulted in higher community productivity and community stability. In regions where aridity is above 0.88, however, higher soil organic carbon content and species richness may lead to higher variability of community productivity and lower ecosystem stability. Overall, our findings revealed that there existed an aridity threshold leading to abrupt changes on community stability in drylands of China. Our study also suggested divergent driving mechanisms of community stability above and below the threshold, which should be considered in policy making regarding the ecosystem management of drylands.
... Thus, the proportion of aggregate carbon pools and soil aggregate hierarchy play key roles in SOC sequestration (Mikutta et al., 2006;Valencia et al., 2013). Due to the stability of SOC, the effects of different rice-based rotation patterns on SOC are usually observable only after a number of rotation cycles Xu et al., 2017). Moreover, the influence mechanism of different rice-based rotation patterns on soil C pools remains unclear. ...
... Analysis of SOC distribution in various pools and their physicochemical properties can provide important insights into soil C pool stability (Gunina et al., 2015). Many reports have demonstrated that the acceleration of aggregate turnover would promote the conversion of fPOM-C to iPOM-C (Gioacchini et al., 2016;Schomakers et al., 2018), and thus improve soil C pool stability (Xu et al., 2017;Haque et al., 2019). However, few studies have reported SOC distribution in various pools in response to different crop rotations. ...
... Then, the samples were dried at 60 • C until constant weight, weighed and ground for further analysis. More details have been described by Xu et al. (2017). The organic C contents in different aggregate C pools and bulk soil were measured by an elemental analyzer (VarioMax CNS, Elementar, Germany). ...
Aggregate carbon (C) pools, which are closely associated with soil organic C (SOC) stability and agricultural productivity, are greatly affected by the composition of soil organic matter (SOM) functional groups. However, the long-term effect of different rice-based rotations on the composition of SOM functional groups remains elusive. In this work, a 10-year field experiment was conducted to assess the effect of different rice-based rotations (rice-wheat [RW] and rice-oilseed rape rotation [RR]) on the composition of SOM functional groups and soil aggregate C pools. The composition of SOM functional groups was determined by the nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy method. Aggregate C pools were isolated through density gradient fractionation. After 10 years of rice-based rotation, compared with RW, RR significantly reduced the proportion of macromolecular functional groups (nuclear magnetic resonance zone (NMR) > 110 mg kg–1) in SOC, especially that of aromatic C (by 25.0%) and carboxyl C (by 26.8%), but significantly increased the contents of SOM compounds, particularly those of polysaccharides (by 30.7%), nitrogen carrier (by 28.4%) and lipids (by 34.7%). RR enhanced the proportions of large macroaggregate (by 56.0%) and intra-microaggregate particulate organic C (iPOC) (by 13.0%), as well as the SOC content (by 12.7%) relative to RW. Structural equation modeling revealed that RR could promote aggregate development and the stock of SOC as iPOC by enhancing the proportion of small functional groups in SOM (NMR < 110 mg kg–1) and promoting SOM compound formation, thereby improving soil C pool stability and content relative to RW in the long-term rotation.
... The mechanism of the effects of irrigation on organic carbon remains unclear. Some studies have found that irrigation affects SOC mineralization and transfer [47], while others found that waterlogging affects rice residue input and the decomposition rate of SOC under anaerobic conditions, thus affecting SOC accumulation [48]. For example, Kelliher et al. [49] found that irrigation reduced SOC by 61%, while Houlbrooke et al. [50] found that irrigation had little effect on SOC, which may be related to environmental conditions, soil development stages and types, irrigation water quality, and years. ...
Soil organic carbon (SOC) conservation in agricultural soils is vital for sustainable agricultural production and climate change mitigation. To project changes of SOC and rice yield under different water and carbon management in future climates, based on a two-year (2015 and 2016) field test in Kunshan, China, the Denitrification Decomposition (DNDC) model was modified and validated and the soil moisture module of DNDC was improved to realize the simulation under conditions of water-saving irrigation. Four climate models under four representative concentration pathways (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, RCP 6.0, and RCP 8.5), which were integrated from the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), were ensembled by the Bayesian Model Averaging (BMA) method. The results showed that the modified DNDC model can effectively simulate changes in SOC, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and rice yield under different irrigation and fertilizer management systems. The normalized root mean squared errors of the SOC and DOC were 3.45–17.59% and 8.79–13.93%, respectively. The model efficiency coefficients of SOC and DOC were close to 1. The climate scenarios had a great impact on rice yield, whereas the impact on SOC was less than that of agricultural management measures on SOC. The average rice yields of all the RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, RCP 6.0, and RCP 8.5 scenarios in the 2090s decreased by 18.41%, 38.59%, 65.11%, and 65.62%, respectively, compared with those in the 2020s. The long-term effect of irrigation on the SOC content of paddy fields was minimal. The SOC of the paddy fields treated with conventional fertilizer decreased initially and then remained unchanged, while the other treatments increased obviously with time. The rice yields of all the treatments decreased with time. Compared with traditional management, controlled irrigation with straw returning clearly increased the SOC and rice yields of paddy fields. Thus, this water and carbon management system is recommended for paddy fields.
... A considerable amount of SOC is stored in the deep soil layers in the loess region, and these layers may be strongly affected by land-use management practices (Wang et al. 2015), such as fertilization, irrigation, and tillage. These activities can strongly alter the input rates of organic matter (Deng et al. 2014;James et al. 2015;Jobbágy and Jackson 2000), changing the decomposition of organic matter inputs that increase the light fraction of organic carbon and transporting organic matter deeper in the soil either directly by increasing belowground inputs or indirectly by enhancing surface mixing by soil organisms (Dalal et al. 2011;Kukal et al. 2009;Xu et al. 2017). Similarly, the magnitudes of fluxes in soil N cycles are subject to considerable uncertainty for the entire soil profile. ...
... The decrease in SOC stocks following land-use change was influenced by higher MAT, which accelerated organic matter mineralization (Wei et al. 2014). Changes in the SOC and TN stocks are affected by forest type and cultivation stage (Lal 2015;Xu et al. 2017). In addition, soil depth is an important variable for estimating SOC stock loss. ...
Purpose
Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) soil profiles are influenced by several environmental factors. However, the contents and distributions of these elements in deep soils and sediments are largely underestimated. We aimed to estimate the stocks, patterns, and driving factors of deep soil C and N on the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP) after large-scale ecological restoration projects.
Materials and methods
Soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) contents in different soil layers were measured directly at 86 sites along a regional transect across the CLP.
Results and discussion
SOC and TN contents ranged from 1.97 to 6.83 g C kg⁻¹ and 0.24 to 0.72 g N kg⁻¹, respectively, as the soil depth varied from 0 to 5 m. The mean contents and degrees of variability of SOC and TN decreased with the increasing of soil depth. Based on SOC and TN content patterns, we divided the 0–5-m soil profile into layers of 0–0.1, 0.1–0.4, 0.4–1, and 1–5 m. In the 1–5-m soil layer, approximately 70% of the mean SOC stock (14.97 kg C m⁻²) and 71% of the mean TN stock (1.75 kg N m⁻²) were stored. A partial least square regression model showed satisfactory predictive performance, with R² and Q² > 0.5 for SOC and TN stocks in the 0.1–0.4-m soil layer. Climatic factors, soil water content (SWC), and field capacity strongly affected SOC and TN stocks in all soil layers. The significance of clay content, SWC, and normalized difference vegetation index varied with soil depth and became the strongest in the 1–5-m soil layer. The highest proportion of SOC and TN stocks for this soil layer were found in grassland and in 450–550 mm rainfall zone.
Conclusion
Considerable amounts of SOC and TN stocks were stored in the 1–5-m-deep soils. Land-use types and rainfall zones can significantly affect the SOC and TN stocks. This information is helpful for identifying local land uses associated with high SOC and TN stocks and is essential for accurately estimating and predicting regional C and N stocks and cycles in terrestrial ecosystems.
... Controlled irrigation (CI) paddy fields can produce smaller net CO 2 absorption than flooding irrigation (FI) paddy fields ). In addition, water-saving irrigation can considerably decrease the total SOC stock of paddy fields (Xu et al. 2017a). Biochar has recently elicited attention due to its many advantageous properties that make biochar addition a potentially effective method for increasing soil organic matter (SOM) content (Plaza et al. 2016), promoting crop growth (Khan et al. 2013;Zhang et al. 2015;Munda et al. 2016;Pandit et al. 2018), increasing crop yield (Sun et al. 2016;Qiu et al. 2017;Wang et al. 2017), and decreasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Pokharel et al. 2018). ...
The addition of biochar has been reported as a strategy for improving soil fertility, crop productivity, and carbon sequestration. However, information regarding the effects of biochar on the carbon cycle in paddy fields under water-saving irrigation remains limited. Thus, a field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of biochar addition on the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO2 and soil organic carbon (SOC) content of paddy fields under water-saving irrigation in the Taihu Lake region of China. Four treatments were applied: controlled irrigation (CI) without biochar addition as the control (CA), CI with biochar addition at a rate of 20 t·ha⁻¹ (CB), CI with biochar addition at a rate of 40 t·ha⁻¹ (CC), and flooding irrigation (FI) with biochar addition at a rate of 40 t·ha⁻¹ (FC). Biochar addition increased rice yield and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) by 24.0–36.3 and 33.4–42.5%, respectively, compared with the control. In addition, biochar addition increased the NEE of CI paddy fields. The average NEE of paddy fields under CB and CC was 2.41 and 30.6% higher than that under CA, respectively. Thus, the increasing effect of biochar addition at a rate of 40 t·ha⁻¹ was considerably better than those of the other treatments. Apart from biochar addition, irrigation mode was also identified as an influencing factor. CI management increased the NEE of paddy fields by 17.6% compared with FI management. Compared with CA, CB increased total net CO2 absorption by 10.0%, whereas CC decreased total net CO2 absorption by 13.8%. Biochar addition also increased SOC, dissolved organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon contents. Therefore, the joint regulation of biochar addition and water-saving irrigation is a good technique for maintaining rice yield, increasing IWUE, and promoting soil fertility. Furthermore, when amended at the rate of 20 t·ha⁻¹, biochar addition will be a good strategy for sequestering carbon in paddy fields.
... Rice fields are soil that has been used for 40-50 years and plow pan is formed. This layer is found at a depth of 10-15 cm from the surface of the soil and is 2-5 cm thick [3]. ...
... This is because the value of the N element of the two soils is almost the same, i.e.: 212.930 ± 0.00 ppm and 198.750 ± 0.005 ppm for Bantul and Sleman, respectively. This happens because tomato plants need NO 3 − and H + ions to accelerate growth. ...
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of pH, electrical conductivity, and nitrogen content in the soil of five cities in Yogyakarta Special Region considering the growth of tomato plants. This study was conducted using quantitative methods and observations on the growth of tomato plants. The results showed that pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and soil nitrogen (N) elements originating from Yogyakarta were in accordance with the theory for tomato plant growth which were (5.380 ± 0.005), (284.0 ± 0.5) × í µí¿í µí¿ −í µí¿ mS/cm, and (264.680 ± 0.005) ppm, respectively. Based on these results, the growth of tomatoes planted using the soil samples from Yogyakarta in terms of plant height, leaf length, and leaf width was more optimal. However, the tomato plant stem diameter growths from the five soil samples are relatively the same about 0.38-0.30 cm.
... Accelerated decomposition of soil organic carbon caused by WSI reduced soil organic carbon content after harvesting relative to the FI paddy. Xu et al. found that rain-fed fields with irrigation applied only during drought periods exhibited significantly lower total soil organic carbon stock relative to FI [23]. Non-flooding management under the CI treatment had a similar effect on soil organic carbon content to that of rain-fed management. ...
Straw return (SR) and rice water-saving irrigation (WSI) affect the greenhouse gas emission of paddy fields. However, studies on CO2 exchange between paddy fields and the atmosphere with joint regulation of SR and WSI are few. We conducted a two-year field experiment to investigate the effects of SR on soil respiration and net ecosystem exchange of CO2 (NEE) in paddy fields under controlled irrigation (CI), which is a typical WSI technique. The rice yields, irrigation water use efficiency, seasonal variations in soil respiration, NEE, and soil organic carbon content were measured. Compared with the control (flooding irrigation and traditional chemical fertilizer), a significant increase in rice yield and irrigation water use efficiency in the paddy fields under CI and SR joint management (CS) was observed. CS increased the soil respiration rate during most of the rice growth stage and increased the net CO2 absorption rate before approximately 80 days after transplanting; afterward, the pattern reversed. Total CO2 emissions through soil respiration in CS paddy fields increased by 43.7% and 182% compared with the control in 2014 and 2015, respectively. However, CS also caused an increase in the total net CO2 absorption by 18.1% and 30.1% in these two years, respectively. The acceleration in the consumption and decomposition of soil organic carbon induced by frequent alternate wet–dry cycles of the CI paddy fields increased the soil respiration and decreased the net CO2 absorption. SR promoted soil respiration but also improved rice growth, increasing the net CO2 absorption. The soil organic carbon content of the CS paddy fields after harvesting increased by 23.2% compared with that before transplanting. The present study concluded that joint regulation of WSI and SR is an effective measure for maintaining yield, increasing irrigation water use efficiency, mitigating CO2 emission, and promoting paddy soil fertility.
Climate change and anthropogenic activities are reshaping dryland ecosystems globally at an unprecedented pace, jeopardizing their stability. The stability of these ecosystems is crucial for maintaining ecological balance and supporting local communities. Yet, the mechanisms governing their stability are poorly understood, largely due to the scarcity of comprehensive field data. Here we show the patterns of community temporal stability and its determinants across an aridity spectrum by integrating a transect survey across China's drylands with remote sensing. Our results revealed a U-shaped relationship between community temporal stability and aridity, with a pivotal shift occurring around an aridity level of 0.88. In less arid areas (aridity level below 0.88), enhanced precipitation and biodiversity were associated with increased community productivity and stability. Conversely, in more arid zones (aridity level above 0.88), elevated soil organic carbon and biodiversity were linked to greater fluctuations in community productivity and reduced stability. Our study identifies a critical aridity threshold that precipitates significant changes in community stability in China's drylands, underscoring the importance of distinct mechanisms driving ecosystem stability in varying aridity contexts. These insights are pivotal for developing informed ecosystem management and policy strategies tailored to the unique challenges of dryland conservation.
