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... the late 1990's the Taylors recognized the potential of farming the high value giant geoduck clam. These clams (Figure 58), which take an average of 6 years to reach the 1 kilogram mar- ket size, had been harvested subtidally by divers since the early 1970s. In 2000, the Quilcene, Washington hatchery was expanded to pro- duce more geoduck seed. ...
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... Ria Formosa was also modelled to explore the interactions of inshore and offshore aquaculture (Ferreira et al., 2012(Ferreira et al., , 2014. The authors used a set of joint models (hydrodynamic and ecological) to explore the potential spread of diseases and for optimization of stocking density, pointing to a better performance in IMTA with gilthead sea bream and mussel culture compared to mussel culture alone. ...
... At the ecosystem-level, the effects of dredging and clam biomass on Ría de Formosa were simulated by mathematical modelling indicating that aquaculture was exploited close to the carrying capacity of the system (Duarte et al., 2007). As stated above, a large modelling initiative was carried out to explore the aquaculture environment interactions of IMTA in Ría de Formosa, which included several bivalve species and types of culture, benthic and suspended (Ferreira et al., 2012(Ferreira et al., , 2014. ...
The Workshop on Bay of Biscay and Iberian Coast Aquaculture Overview (WKBoBICAO) was established to assemble and synthesize aquaculture related data and information and to inform the aquaculture overview for this ecoregion
... The Strategic Plan for Portuguese Aquaculture (2014-2020), a country that produced only 0.4% of aquaculture product among ICES states in 2018 [17], targets an increase of production to 25,000 t by 2023 without reference to ECC or CC concepts. This omission is notable, given the extensive research applications of ECC and other CC concepts in the country [77,78]. The Republic of Ireland's National Strategic Plan for Sustainable Aquaculture Development [79] references CC as a factor in the scaling and phasing of individual shellfish farms to build regulatory confidence, "A key factor in determining the scale of potential developments using ecosystem-based management is the concept of CC", which considers environmental limits aimed at avoiding "unacceptable change to the natural ecosystems [79]." ...
Governance and management strategies for aquaculture development were examined for a select number of jurisdictions covering a range of marine aquaculture production to better understand the degree to which concepts of "Ecological Carrying Capacity" (ECC) are incorporated into management tools or permitting requirements for aquaculture development. Policies, regulations, and strategic plans were sought through professional knowledge and, at times, using web-based searches. Aquaculture ECC, defined here as, "the magnitude of aquaculture production that can be supported without leading to unacceptable changes in ecological process, species, populations, or communities in the environment," was not strictly applied in any jurisdiction's aquaculture policy documentation. A broadened search to consider the concept of aquaculture carrying capacity (CC) more generally was conducted. Of the ten nations examined, CC concepts could be found in policy documentation of several nations. The inclusion of CC concepts in policy and strategic planning can be used as part of a suite of management tools to promote sustainable aquaculture within FAO's Ecological Approach to Aquaculture.
... It is the Portugal's major bivalves harvesting area (about 90% of the total national production of clams), approximately 2,300 kg/year (INE, 2016) from 460 ha with ca. 1200 shellfish grounds (Ferreira et al., 2012). The lagoon extends for 55 km, with 6 km at maximum wide, occupying an area of about 100 km 2 . ...
Twenty-four pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) were evaluated in the soft tissues of clams Ruditappes decussatus exposed along a 1.5-km dispersal gradient of the treated effluent from an urban wastewater treatment plant discharging in Ria Formosa, and compared with those in the marine waters and discharged effluents. The clams were exposed for 1 month, in June–July 2016, 2017 and 2018. PhACs were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry after the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method (clams) or solid-phase extraction (water samples). The most representative PhACs in the effluents and receiving waters (regardless of the tidal dilution effect) were diclofenac, carbamazepine and caffeine (on average ≤ 2 μg/L) and only caffeine exhibited significant inter-annual differences, with higher values in 2017. In turn, the most bioaccumulated PhACs in clams were caffeine (0.54–27 ng/g wet weight, significantly higher INE, 2016) and acetaminophen (0.37–3.7 ng/g wet weight, significant lower INE, 2016). A multivariate principal component analysis showed (i) PhAC bioaccumulation primarily depended on biotic factors (clams length and weight), (ii) PhAC physicochemical properties Log Kow, pKa and water solubility interplaying with water abiotic variables were more relevant for explaining data variability in water than the physical dilution/tidal mixing, (iii) this process, reflected by the salinity gradient, had a tertiary role in data variation, responsible for spatial discrimination of marine waters. This study provides a better understanding of PhACs bioaccumulation by clams Ruditapes decussatus in real environmental conditions, under the influence of urban treated effluent dispersal in Ria Formosa coastal lagoon, a major producer of bivalves, ultimately disentangling key factors of PhAC bioaccumulation.
... The main economic activities on Culatra are fishing and tourism, both of which are highly linked to Ria Formosa. The natural reserve is the most productive aquaculture zone in Portugal, representing about 41% of the Portuguese production [20]. The resources of the lagoon system are an important source of income for a large part of the population living in the Ria Formosa area, especially for the Culatra Island residents, where the vast majority of the economic income is related to mollusc farming or fishing. ...
Islands have the potential to be precursors in the transition to clean energy, by adopting new technologies and applying innovative solutions that can serve as showcases at an international level. This paper is a contribution towards understating the importance of community engagement on energy transition processes. It covers multiple aspects of a green transition process, including technical, environmental, social, and economic issues. Starting by a participatory diagnosis process, the community of a small island located in Portugal (Culatra Island, Algarve), was challenged to lead the transition process and define different pillars of energy transition. The process brought together local authorities, academia, citizens and companies. Using practical examples, it is shown how the community is succeeding in tailoring new technological solutions for a green transition, according with the specific needs of the island, as expressed by the islanders themselves, including batteries, electric vehicles, retrofitting of homes, or heat pumps, which, when combined, could lay the foundations for the creation of a Renewable Energy Community and leverage socioeconomic benefits.
... iii) According to the FORWARD study (Ferreira, J. G. et al., 2012), there is a need for more research and understanding of the socio-cultural context of the shell fishermen as it is essential to get the holistic view of the shell fishing sector in the Ria Formosa Natural Park. ...
... vi) The decreasing number of young generations taking over the traditional shell fishing activity can threaten the sector or transform it, which could lead to the declining of a traditional activity, strongly linked to the cultural identity. (Ferreira, J. G. et al. 2012). ...
... Food plays an important role in the Algarve and the development of innovative tourism experiences around food productions has been also considered to think about a Regional Sea Cluster and to develop more coastal tourism initiatives, as shown in the study carried out by Gonçalves, A. et al. (2011) Moreover, the FORWARD report recommended the implementation of different initiatives to provide added value to the clam sector in particular. The creation of a certified food label for clams as a PDO product, the reconsideration of the leasing division of the clam culture activity or the mechanization of the clam culture activity, are some examples, yet to be developed (Ferreira, J. G. et al., 2012) All these initiatives described in the paragraph above could have a direct relation to the tourism sector, transforming the shell fishing production places to an area of tourism activity and consumption and/or opening potential opportunities for other activities to be developed. This transition or transformation could also have an effect in the provision of cultural and natural heritage linked to the shellfish sector in the Ria. ...
Development and territorial management in coastal areas is challenging, especially when food production takes place in vulnerable natural areas which are at the same time used for other activities, such as tourism. Shared spaces in general can lead to conflicts and tensions, as different actors bring in specific dynamics and a variety of interests and perceptions. This becomes even more evident when coastal fisheries reflect a region’s culture and heritage, through cultural landscapes, traditional fishing practices and customs, and bringing food products for local and regional dishes. This research will elaborate on how tourism development and the shell fish sector see shell fishing as part of the cultural and natural heritage, how they interact with each other and the importance of communication and collaboration in managing shellfish as heritage. It illustrates the difficulties through the case of Ria Formosa Natural Park in the Algarve – a unique ecosystem designated under the RAMSAR convention, and the site of the nursery grounds for many key fish species in the lagoon system. The park is also one of the biggest nature-based tourism attractions in Portugal, providing and ensuring livelihood support for the local communities in the Sotavento area. This particular case presents heritage images and place dynamics based on the perspectives of shellfish producers and tourism agents, and shows the present and future challenges. The aim of this research is to shed light on the current dynamics and discuss a common long-term vision on shell fishing as cultural and natural heritage, and how the shellfish and tourism sectors can coexist in the present and in the future.
... shows the modelling Framework, including GIS, used to gain a better understanding of the interactions between aquaculture and the environment between the inshore and offshore habitat of the Ria Formosa. The detailed description of how these models were used are available in (Ferreira et al, 2012;2014). Modelling framework from the FORWARD and COEXIST projects for analysing interactions between the inshore coastal zone and offshore aquaculture (Ferreira et al, 2014). ...
... The extensive data set that has been used by the COEXIST and FORWARD projects to carry out modelling exercise for APPAA are described fully in the published literature (e.g. Ferreira et al, 2012;2014) and will not be presented here as the main objective is to provide an illustration how these models can contribute to characterisation of sites for mussel aquaculture along the Algarve coast. ...
... As part of the characterisation of the Finisterra site, in situ data for temperature, salinity, Chl-a, POM and TPM have been related to data on the growth of spat mussel over the period of a year to calibrate growth models for WinShell and FARM. Figure 8.8 shows some examples of the outcomes of the COEXIST and FORWARD projects (Ferreira et al, 2012;2014), that could be produced by using different aspects of the modelling framework . Thus fluxes and boundary conditions have been modelled with the Delft .3D-hydrodynamic ...
... Oyster aquaculture is of particular relevance in Chesapeake Bay and the PRE, since by the early 1900s, oyster populations already were recognized for their integral part in maintenance of good water quality due to their filtration (Rothschild et al. 1994; Keiner 2009). Presently, there is mounting evidence that ''bioextraction,'' an environmental management strategy by which nutrients are removed from an aquatic ecosystem through the harvest of enhanced biological production, including the aquaculture of suspension-feeding shellfish, could play an important role in restoration of coastal water quality (Lindahl et al. 2005; Nobre et al. 2010; Ferreira et al. 2011a Ferreira et al. , 2012 Burkholder and Shumway 2011; Lindahl 2011 ). Additional benefits of this alternative management practice is that it can address legacy pollution in the water column and sediments, provide marketable seafood product, and potentially supply growers with additional income in a nutrient-trading program. ...
... Specifically, we used the well-tested Farm Aquaculture Resource Management (FARM) model to evaluate the potential for the cultivation of Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) to reduce eutrophic symptoms. This model has been tested in the EU, China, Ireland, and Northern Ireland (Ferreira et al. 2007bFerreira et al. , 2009Ferreira et al. , 2011aFerreira et al. , 2012 Nunes et al. 2011). The FARM model combines physical and biogeochemical models, shellfish growth models, and screening models at the farm scale for the determination of shellfish production and for the assessment of water-quality changes on account of shellfish cultivation. ...
... The FARM model combines physical and biogeochemical models, shellfish growth models, and screening models at the farm scale for the determination of shellfish production and for the assessment of water-quality changes on account of shellfish cultivation. The model is useful for decision support for aquaculture siting (e.g., Silva et al. 2011; Ferreira et al. 2012), because it also evaluates farm-related impacts on benthic processes through biodeposition. It can be used for marginal analyses of farm production potential and profit maximization, while assessing potential credits for carbon and nitrogen trading (Ferreira et al. 2007aFerreira et al. , 2009Ferreira et al. , 2011a; www.farmscale.org). ...
The natural aging process of Chesapeake Bay and its tributary estuaries has been accelerated by human activities around the shoreline and within the watershed, increasing sediment and nutrient loads delivered to the bay. Riverine nutrients cause algal growth in the bay leading to reductions in light penetration with consequent declines in sea grass growth, smothering of bottom-dwelling organisms, and decreases in bottom-water dissolved oxygen as algal blooms decay. Historically, bay waters were filtered by oysters, but declines in oyster populations from overfishing and disease have led to higher concentrations of fine-sediment particles and phytoplankton in the water column. Assessments of water and biological resource quality in Chesapeake Bay and tributaries, such as the Potomac River, show a continual degraded state. In this paper, we pay tribute to Owen Bricker’s comprehensive, holistic scientific perspective using an approach that examines the connection between watershed and estuary. We evaluated nitrogen inputs from Potomac River headwaters, nutrient-related conditions within the estuary, and considered the use of shellfish aquaculture as an in-the-water nutrient management measure. Data from headwaters, nontidal, and estuarine portions of the Potomac River watershed and estuary were analyzed to examine the contribution from different parts of the watershed to total nitrogen loads to the estuary. An eutrophication model was applied to these data to evaluate eutrophication status and changes since the early 1990s and for comparison to regional and national conditions. A farm-scale aquaculture model was applied and results scaled to the estuary to determine the potential for shellfish (oyster) aquaculture to mediate eutrophication impacts. Results showed that (1) the contribution to nitrogen loads from headwater streams is small (about 2 %) of total inputs to the Potomac River Estuary; (2) eutrophic conditions in the Potomac River Estuary have improved in the upper estuary since the early 1990s, but have worsened in the lower estuary. The overall system-wide eutrophication impact is high, despite a decrease in nitrogen loads from the upper basin and declining surface water nitrate nitrogen concentrations over that period; (3) eutrophic conditions in the Potomac River Estuary are representative of Chesapeake Bay region and other US estuaries; moderate to high levels of nutrient-related degradation occur in about 65 % of US estuaries, particularly river-dominated low-flow systems such as the Potomac River Estuary; and (4) shellfish (oyster) aquaculture could remove eutrophication impacts directly from the estuary through harvest but should be considered a complement—not a substitute—for land-based measures. The total nitrogen load could be removed if 40 % of the Potomac River Estuary bottom was in shellfish cultivation; a combination of aquaculture and restoration of oyster reefs may provide larger benefits.
... All A detailed description of the application of these models to the inshore part of the system, validation of outputs, and key results, has been published elsewhere (e.g. Ferreira et al., 2012aFerreira et al., , 2012bFerreira et al., , 2013 and will not be addressed here, except where pertinent to the analysis of inshore-offshore interactions. The system-scale model was validated against measured concentrations of nutrients and phytoplankton, individual clam growth curves, and reported landings. ...
... A vertical profile of chlorophyll over a clam bed (Ferreira et al., 2013) shows food depletion near the bed (Fig. 6). ...
... gilthead bream or sea bass, than it is for Mediterranean mussel. From a governance perspective, the all-in-all-out approach used in Norway (Ferreira et al., 2013), followed by a fallowing break, is highly recommended as a way to control disease (Werkman et al., 2011). ...
Offshore aquaculture is the subject of intense debate, focusing on feasibility, sustainability, and the potential for effective expansion in the context of competing uses of the coastal zone, and a world requirement for an additional thirty million tonnes of aquatic products by 2050.
A modelling framework that integrates the SWAT model for the watershed, Delft3D for ocean circulation, and the EcoWin model for long-term (10 year) ecological simulations, was developed for integrated analysis of catchment, inshore waters, and offshore aquaculture, providing an approach that addresses production, environmental effects, and disease interactions. This framework was tested using a case study in SE Portugal, for a system-scale modelling domain with an ocean area of 470 km2 and a coastal watershed area of 627 km2.
This domain contains an inshore area of 184 km2 (Ria Formosa) subject to multiple (often conflicting) uses, including aquaculture of the high value (farmgate price > 10 € kg− 1) clam Tapes decussatus, and one of the first offshore aquaculture parks in the world, located at distance of 3.6 nm from the coast, at a water depth of 30–60 m, with an area of 15 km2. The park contains 60 leases, of which at most 70% are for finfish cage culture, and at least 30% for bivalve longline culture.
A substantial part of the dissolved nutrients required to drive primary production that constitutes the food source for clams originates from the coastal catchment. Although stakeholder perception is that nutrients are mainly linked to point-source discharges from wastewater treatment plants, watershed modelling indicates that 55% of the nitrogen and 70% of the phosphorus loads are from diffuse sources.
The residence time of waters in the inshore area is low (1–2 days), and consequently pelagic primary production takes place offshore, and drives inshore clam production. The longline culture of Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) in the offshore park reduces inshore food availability for clams: simulations suggest that a 3% decrease in clam yields will occur due to offshore mussel cultivation, at a cost of 1.2 million €. This is offset by revenue from offshore culture, but is a source of stakeholder conflict.
Potential disease spread between the offshore and inshore systems was analysed using a particle tracking model, and allowed the development of a risk exposure map. This illustrates the challenges posed by hydrodynamic connectivity with respect to biosecurity of aquaculture and fisheries, both inshore and offshore.
The model framework was also used for optimisation of stocking density, and analysis of combined culture of finfish and shellfish, both in terms of production and environmental effects. In the offshore aquaculture park, the models suggest that integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) of gilthead bream (Sparus aurata) and Mediterranean mussels allows for an increased harvestable biomass of mussels, particularly at higher stocking densities, and offsets some of the negative externalities of finfish culture.
By quantifying issues such as reduced yields for inshore stakeholders due to offshore activity, and illustrating the need for strong governance to offset disease risks, dynamic models make a valuable contribution in assessing the feasibility of offshore aquaculture, and the general principles that should underpin licensing and regulation of this sector.
We stress the need to go beyond the conventional spatial planning toolset in order to ensure an ecosystem approach to aquaculture, and the opportunities that exist for applying a systems framework in an information economy, where the capital costs of software and data have been sharply reduced.
The United States has a $16 billion seafood deficit that the U.S. Department of Commerce and states are attempting to close by legislative policies, encouraging expansion of aquaculture in the United States. One of these policies, the 2011 National Shellfish Initiative, recognizes the benefits to water quality of cultivation of bivalve shellfish aquaculture in addition to the provision of seafood product. More recently, research addressing these policies has resulted in approval of the use of harvested oysters as a nutrient best management practice in the Chesapeake Bay region. Also discussed, but not yet fully implemented, is the inclusion of oyster growers in nutrient credit trading programs where economic compensation is provided to oyster growers for the nutrient removal ecosystem service that their oysters provide. This study used field sampling and a local-scale oyster production model to compare water quality, oyster production, and oyster associated nitrogen removal at two bottom and four water-column Maryland Chesapeake Bay oyster farms. Objectives were to highlight differences in water quality (i.e., oyster food), resultant differences in oyster production, and differences in estimated oyster-associated nutrient removal among farms. An avoided, or replacement, cost economic valuation analysis was performed to also compare the potential payment to the oyster growers for the nutrient removal service if they were included in a fully developed nutrient credit trading program. Production at the six sites varied from 1.78 to 25 metric tons of harvestable oysters acre–1 y–1. Oyster filtration–related N removal was estimated to be at a range of 28–457 kg N acre–1 y–1. The potential economic value of the total N removed by a farm was estimated to be at a range of $0.56 × 10³–$12,446 × 10³ y–1 among farm sites, depending on the alternative management measure used to assign the value.
Proper site selection is critical to the development and expansion of marine aquaculture. Major considerations for site selection include: potential for competing uses, environmental interactions, and animal productivity. Two types of existing site selection tools, mapping and modeling, have proven useful independently, and in some recent studies have proven useful when used together. GIS-based mapping tools have become important in the decision-making process. These tools provide access to marine and coastal datasets allowing farmers and extension agents to gather information on availability of cultivation sites. They are also used by resource managers to assess potential use conflicts (e.g. existence of commercial fishing, mooring areas, fixed fishing gear) and possible environmental interactions (e.g. presence of seagrasses, contaminants, threatened or endangered species). Models have been used separately to predict animal growth, farm productivity, and farm-related effects on the surrounding water and sediment quality.
