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This article offers a new perspective on sociological theory, based on psychological insights from Perceptual Control Theory. After describing this cybernetic model of goal-directed behavior and reviewing its empirical support, I present results from computer simulations applying the model to the social interactions of elementary control agents. My...
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... combatants may temporarily find themselves pulling in the same direction, at least until the third party stops interfering, as when warring spouses close ranks against an outsider's gratuitous advice. A final simulation explores what happens when control-system conflicts are resolved. Until the 50th time unit (out of 500), the simulation in Fig. 7 has the same parameters-same gains, reference values, and limits on output-as Fig. 6. At t=50, however, one change occurs: The two conflicting reference values are arbitrarily made to converge into precise alignment at a reference value of zero, as if the parties to an intense dispute were suddenly to patch up their differences and ...
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... notes, in summarizing Sherif's (1988) classic Robbers Cave Experiment, ''[C]onflict escalation appears much easier to induce thany conflict resolution.'' With control agents, the reason for the slower pace of convergence in output compared to divergence is because control systems only change their output when they experience perceptual errors. In Fig. 7, when the compromise in reference values is reached, it reduces the perceptual error for both agents to nearly zero, and with perceptual error at zero the logic of control means no change in output. If a control agent were to suddenly stop pulling when its perceptual error was zero, its error would probably increase abruptly because ...
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... to nearly zero, and with perceptual error at zero the logic of control means no change in output. If a control agent were to suddenly stop pulling when its perceptual error was zero, its error would probably increase abruptly because its output would no longer balance the disturbances (including the other party's opposite pull). A careful look at Fig. 7 shows us that most of the convergence in output in this simulation takes place at times when a large value of the disturbance pushes one agent or the other to its output limit (as happens between times 250 and 300 on the graph). The other agent then takes over as the only effective controller and moves its output nearer to the center, ...
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... party is likely to end up ''winning'' the conflict, gaining control of the disputed variable near its own reference value. 6. Even if two opposing agents happen to resolve their conflict by aligning their reference values, their outputs will tend to remain in opposition, and the overt conflict between them will relax more slowly than it escalated (Fig. 7). Thus, an overt opposition of outputs does not necessarily indicate any covert conflict in intentions. 7. These findings have considerable generality: For example, all of the findings can be generalized to apply to interactions of three or more control agents (theoretically up to thousands or millions of interacting ...
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This draft of a chapter eventually published in The Interdisciplinary Handbook of Perceptual Control Theory (Warren Mansell, Editor, Copyright Elsevier, 2020), contains substantial material omitted from the final draft: (1) an introductory essay that situates the theory of social structure presented in this chapter in the context of the history of...
This article develops a theoretical framework for analyzing the implications of de-Europeanisation for decision-making processes and policy outcomes in EU foreign policy. As de-Europeanisation progresses, EU foreign policy decision-making is less likely to fit the sociological theories of Normative Suasion, Policy Learning, Normative Entrapment, an...
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... The robot computed the temporal gap between its own percussion sound and the external beat, and continuously adjusted the timing of its outputs to keep the gap as short as possible. PCT has also been used to model "collective control" (McClelland, 2004). Collective control occurs when multiple agents, connected by a shared environment, act together to control an aspect of their environment, that often would not be possible alone. ...
... Our results may show how collective control emerges when the shared medium of music is provided. The fact that people were able to produce synchronization, even without being told to, and without being given opportunities to observe and talk to one another, serves as an example of collective control, where people share similar perceptions and are able to align them in a shared environment (McClelland, 2004). Collective control may be achieved through reference points for perception that are internal oscillators (Levitin et al., 2018). ...
Evidence to date suggests there may be a link between interpersonal synchronization and sense of connectedness to others in both music and non-music tasks. However, earlier studies have used a fixed tempo, thereby ruling out the study of spontaneous synchronization that might emerge from a group of agents. This design is essential to test theories that implicate intrinsic systems governing rhythm within individuals as the source of interpersonal synchronization, coordination, and shared positive affect. The current study used an impromptu music-making task to study the relationship between spontaneous synchronization and sense of connectedness. A total of 49 participants were recruited in dyads or triads and were asked to play percussion sounds on MIDI keyboards for a period of 10 min. Every minute they gave a rating of how connected they felt with the other group members. Participants who showed longer periods of spontaneous synchronization during the joint music-making task reported greater average connectedness with the group members during the task, and a greater increase in connectedness over the duration of the task. Within-individual correlations between synchronization and connectedness revealed a tight coupling in around a third of the participants. We discuss the theoretical implication that the collective control of perceptual variables—such as tempo—may achieve and maintain a sense of connectedness to others.
... Las percepciones de conflicto intergrupal pueden generar distorsiones en las relaciones interpersonales y agudizar los conflictos percibidos; de esta manera, se forman circuitos de retroalimentación que alientan los conflictos mismos (Labianca et al., 1998;McClelland, 2004McClelland, , 2014. También, se ha señalado que las percepciones de contexto dan forma a los modelos mentales de los actores políticos y estos influyen en su comportamiento y en sus estrategias (Salazar & Alper, 1996). ...
... La literatura ha dado cuenta de las percepciones como un componente de la subjetividad que abre perspectivas para la comprensión de actitudes y comportamientos, pero también de estrategias y de conflictos sociales. En este sentido, resulta paradójico que disciplinas como las sociología hayan pasado por alto frecuentemente este horizonte de estudio(McClelland, 2004).Algunos trabajos han planteado, por ejemplo, que los conflictos sociales están asociados con percepciones más que con comportamientos(Labianca et al., 1998). A este respecto, se ha corroborado que las percepciones de inseguridad correlacionan negativamente con el bienestar subjetivo de las poblaciones(Wills-Herrera et al., 2011). ...
Este artículo documenta los resultados de un estudio comparado, de tipo cualitativo, desarrollado en el periodo 2018-2020 en el istmo de Tehuantepec (Oaxaca, México) en torno a tres negociaciones para instalar tres parques eólicos que se encuentran cancelados. Nuestra investigación se apoya en entrevistas, minutas de asambleas, documentos jurídicos, amparos y notas de prensa. Nuestro análisis muestra cómo las prácticas autoritarias ejercidas en la negociación recaen sobre la transición energética, al gestar un clima de percepciones negativas que se tradujeron en una desconfianza e inconformidad que promovieron una oposición social y jurídica hacia los proyectos eólicos. Todo ello afectó la viabilidad de los procedimientos de negociación y consulta formales, como el establecido en el C-169 de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo y estancó la transición energética en la región.
... A number of authors have modeled conflict to illustrate its properties, and point to parallels in everyday human behavior [e.g., (34,54,64,65)]. For example, Carey (34) used models of individual PCT agents initially designed to illustrate crowd behavior [e.g., (66)]. One of these agents, A, had a goal to move to a fixed location but to stay away from another agent, B. B had a goal to get close to A. Carey (34) explored the effects of a parameter known as gain, which is effectively the effort put in to achieve one's goals. ...
... If, in turn, the gain of A was increased, the two agents oscillated widely and vigorously, potentially illustrating the loss of control that can come from increasing one's efforts. The remaining studies of conflict have not interpreted their findings in the context of psychological distress, but either in terms of social group behavior (63,64), or to illustrate more universal principles (54). ...
Traditional research methodologies typically assume that humans operate on the basis of an “open loop” stimulus-process-response rather than the “closed loop” control of internal state. They also average behavioral data across repeated measures rather than assess it continuously, and they draw inferences about the working of an individual from statistical group effects. As such, we propose that they are limited in their capacity to accurately identify and test for the mechanisms of change within psychological therapies. As a solution, we explain the advantages of using a closed loop functional architecture, based on an extended homeostatic model of the brain, to construct working computational models of individual clients that can be tested against real-world data. Specifically, we describe tests of a perceptual control theory (PCT) account of psychological change that combines the components of negative feedback control, hierarchies, conflict, reorganization, and awareness into a working model of psychological function, and dysfunction. In brief, psychopathology is proposed to be the loss of control experienced due to chronic, unresolved conflict between important personal goals. The mechanism of change across disorders and different psychological therapies is proposed to be the capacity for the therapist to help the client shift and sustain their awareness on the higher level goals that are driving goal conflict, for sufficiently long enough to permit a trial-and-error learning process, known as reorganization, to “stumble” upon a solution that regains control. We report on data from studies that have modeled these components both separately and in combination, and we describe the parallels with human data, such as the pattern of early gains and sudden gains within psychological therapy. We conclude with a description of our current research program that involves the following stages: (1) construct a model of the conflicting goals that are held by people with specific phobias; (2) optimize a model for each individual using their dynamic movement data from a virtual reality exposure task (VRET); (3) construct and optimize a learning parameter (reorganization) within each model using a subsequent VRET; (3) validate the model of each individual against a third VRET. The application of this methodology to robotics, attachment dynamics in childhood, and neuroimaging is discussed.
... (Carey, 2016;p. 2) Although Powers' theory has now been available for many decades (Powers, Clark, & Farland, 1960), and has influenced disciplines as diverse as neuroscience (Gomez-Marin & Ghazanfar, 2019), robotics (Young, 2017) and sociology (McClelland, 2004), it has yet to have a significant impact on healthcare practices. This is despite the fact that the theory has important implications for how we create the conditions that are conducive to human health. ...
This article describes how an empirically supported theory of human behaviour, perceptual control theory, can be used to advance nursing practice and improve health outcomes for people who are accessing nursing care. Nursing often takes a pragmatic approach to the delivery of care, with an emphasis on doing what appears to work. This focus on pragmatism can sometimes take precedence over any consideration of the underlying theoretical assumptions that inform decisions to take one particular approach over another or the mechanisms through which nursing interventions have their effects. For nursing to develop as a profession, there needs to be an increased focus on the core principles that underpin the delivery of care. In addition to understanding what works, nurses must develop their understanding of how and why particular approaches work or do not work. Understanding the fundamental principles that underpin nurses’ actions will lead to more efficient and effective approaches to the delivery of nursing care. It will also enable nurses to maximize those elements of their practice that are most beneficial for people and minimize other activities that either have little effect or actually lead to worse outcomes. In this article, we will propose that the phenomenon of control is fundamental to human health. Perceptual control theory provides a coherent theoretical framework that enables us to understand the phenomenon of control through a functional model of human behaviour. People are healthy when their neurochemical, physiological, biological, psychological and social states are all controlled satisfactorily. We will explain the implications of understanding health as control throughout the paper. From this perspective, we will argue that the aim of nurses and nursing should be to support people to maintain or recover control over those aspects of their lives that are important and meaningful to them.
... The result of my sabbatical was a long paper, called "Perceptual Control and Social Theory" (later presented at the 1991 conference of the Control Systems Group), which described control theory in some detail and went on to offer my first take on how control theory could apply to sociology. 1 Over the last 25 years, I've refined my vision of the implications of perceptual control theory for sociology (McClelland 1994(McClelland , 1996(McClelland , 2004(McClelland , 2006(McClelland , 2014, and this chapter represents my latest attempt to envision a more scientific sociology, PCT style. ...
... Few sociologists understand perceptual control theory, and most have never heard of it. Sociological applications of the theory have been mainly confined, even in my own previous work, to the analysis of micro-level interactions between individuals and small groups of individuals, rather than to questions of macro-level social structure (but see McClelland 2004). And in order to make sense of this unconventional perspective, sociologists must set aside the notion that human behavior is caused by forces external to the individual, an assumption deeply ingrained in the theoretical thinking of sociologists (as well as other social scientists) and also in the standard methodological tools of the discipline. ...
... For the next step in this analysis, consider what can happen when two or more people control their own perceptions of the same or similar complex environmental variables in a shared environment. In previous articles (McClelland 2004(McClelland , 2006(McClelland , 2014, I have presented results of my computational-modeling simulations of collective control processes in which two or more simulated agents attempt to control their perceptions of an identical variable in a shared environment. As these articles have shown, the outcomes of collective control processes depend crucially on the degree of alignment (that is, similarity) between the reference values that the agents use to control their perceptions of the environmental variable. ...
This chapter offers a general theory from the PCT perspective of what social structures are and how they work. The chapter (1) develops conceptual tools for understanding the impacts of perceptual control on the physical environment; (2) shows how physical objects and repetitive human actions provide feedback paths for control of higher-order perceptions; (3) reviews simulation findings on collective control processes that stabilize physical phenomena in spite of conflicts between participants; (4) defines social structures as hyper-networks of collective control networks and discusses four types of perceptions collectively controlled in social structures; (5) argues that social structures depend on stabilization of both physical and cultural environments and that people’s work activities provide that stabilization; and (6) shows how the changing membership of social structures, innovations by disadvantaged individuals, social conflicts, and disturbances from external sources all contribute to social change. My overall goal is to help make sociology more scientific.
... The PCT theoretical formulation conforms to contemporary neurophysiological evidence regarding the structure of the CNS as the perceptual hierarchy mirrors the known hierarchical organization of the peripheral nervous system and sensorimotor cortices (Iwamura, 1998); the bidirectional cascade acknowledges the reciprocal connectivity between functional areas that supporting recurrent activation (Sporns, Tononi, & Edelman, 2002); and reorganization has clear parallels in neural plasticity, synaptogenesis and functional localization (Dayan & Cohen, 2011). Moreover, PCT provides an interdisciplinary framework (Carey, Mansell, & Tai, 2014) that has been applied broadly across behavioral domains; from ethology (Bell, Bell, Schank, & Pellis, 2015;Bell & Pellis, 2011) and infant development (Plooij & van de Rijt-Plooij, 1990;Rijt-plooij & Plooij, 2013), to sociology (Mcclelland, 1996;McClelland, 1994McClelland, , 2004 and psychotherapy (Carey, Kelly, Mansell, & Tai, 2012;Higginson, Mansell, & Wood, 2011;Mansell, Harvey, Watkins, & Shafran, 2009). ...
Perceptual control theory (PCT) proposes that perceptual inputs are controlled to intentional 'reference' states by hierarchical negative feedback control, evidence for which comes from manual tracking experiments in humans. We reviewed these experiments to determine whether tracking is process of perceptual control, and to assess the state-of-the-evidence for PCT. A systematic literature search was conducted of peer-review journal and book chapters in which tracking data were simulated with a PCT model (13 studies, 53 participants). We report a narrative review of these studies and a qualitative assessment of their methodological quality. We found evidence that individuals track to individual-specific endogenously-specified reference states and act against disturbances, and evidence that hierarchical PCT can simulate complex tracking. PCT's learning algorithm, reorganization, was not modelled. Limitations exist in the range of tracking conditions under which the PCT model has been tested. Future PCT research should apply the PCT methodology to identify control variables in real-world tasks and develop hierarchical PCT architectures for goal-oriented robotics to test the plausibility of PCT model-based action control.
... Finally, a benefit of the MOL technique of probing for higher-level perceptions is that by removing attention from the immediate conflict, one can interrupt, or at least slow down, the process of escalation of tension that ordinarily occurs during conflicts. Simulations of conflicts between control systems have shown that conflicts naturally escalate, and escalation processes tend to take place more rapidly than relaxation processes do (McClelland, 2004(McClelland, , 2014. In neural hierarchies, the lower the level of perceptions in the hierarchy, the more quickly conflicts between perceptions at that level tend to escalate. ...
... Although we refer to these high-level perceptions as shared, we do not mean to imply that the perceptions held by the disputants are necessarily identical. From a PCT perspective, when two or more parties control similar perceptions of the same object of control (the same aspect of a shared environment), it is described as "collective control" (McClelland, 2004(McClelland, , 2014. Collective control allows people with somewhat differing perceptions of their shared environment to act together, with results that, although they may not match of the participants' references for the outcome of the control process, will have a greater impact on their common environment than any individual could accomplish independently. ...
This paper compares and analyzes two ostensibly disparate fields of professional practice: the mediation of disputes and a psychological therapy called Method of Levels (MOL). Mediators address interpersonal conflicts, while MOL therapists help clients cope with intrapersonal conflicts. The academic literatures of the two practices do not overlap. While the techniques of mediation have developed pragmatically from a variety of theoretical perspectives, MOL derives explicitly from a single psychological theory: perceptual control theory (PCT). The PCT account relies on understanding the nature of control, considering controlled experiences in a multi-leveled hierarchy from concrete (sensory perceptions) to abstract (values, ideals, principles), and appreciating the pivotal role of the depth and duration of present-moment awareness. We argue that, in spite of differences, the two fields of practice have many similarities, and we show how PCT works equally well to analyze the interpersonal conflicts addressed by mediation as the intrapersonal conflicts addressed by MOL, and thus, that the two kinds of conflict are closely related. We conclude that the two fields of practice can be of mutual benefit to each other and that PCT can provide a useful theoretical foundation for both.
... Perceptual Control Theory was developed by W.T. Powers, but I will base my discussion of the theory on the work of McClelland (McClelland, 2004), who applies it to the social realm. ...
... In the last model, control is also local. Here I'll use Perceptual Control Theory ↑ 165 (McClelland, 2004) to build a model of agents trying to gain control by changing the methods of their neighbors. I will now elaborate two dimensions in the various manifestations of control. ...
In combining anarchist theory with mathematics, this thesis wishes to better understand what power and hierarchy are in order to explore how we can live without coercion. My motivation to study these concepts stems from observing a lack of freedom in contemporary society despite a lack of obvious coercion or clear hierarchical structure. I divide this issue into three main research questions. What are, on the one hand, authority and hierarchy, and, on the other hand, what are freedom and autonomy? How does hierarchy evolve in social systems? And how can we shift from hierarchical control to a more free social organization? To answer these questions, I make use of social theory, anarchist theory, complex systems theory, mathematics and computer simulations. I distinguish several aspects of power: control, coercion, constraint, determination and hierarchy. Defining these aspects leads to different understandings of freedom. Internal control refers to control over your own situation, while external control is directed towards the (whole) environment. Coercion forces a person to do something he does not want to do, while constraint limits a person’s possibilities. External determination, wherein one is completely influenced by an external force, makes one vulnerable to coercion. Determination and coercion are associated with a hierarchical structure. In a hierarchy, each element has no more than one influence and this influence works in only one direction. These concepts are described using mathematical tools such as graphs and entropy in cybernetic models. Self-organization can lead to the development of a controller. Working together to reach your goals can lead to a higher-level system. This system can acquire goals of its own, which can become disconnected from the goals of the entities that created the system. The rise of such a controller can be avoided by constantly opposing any seed of hierarchy or coercion. In this manner, no power can grow too big. This mechanism of constant opposition is illustrated in a simulation. Overall, this thesis illustrates how to think in a less hierarchical way by focusing on local coherence. In this way, there can be jointly related ideas rather than a single, primary concept with several sub-concepts. The tension between hierarchy and local coherence recurs throughout the thesis—in the difference between Marxism and anarchism, in internal versus external control, in the structural component of hierarchy, in hierarchical models versus their non-hierarchical variants, and in human agency versus determination.
... Interactive robotics. The crowd behavior [44,Chapter 9] and collective control [34] work previously carried out in the context of PCT provide a clear and straightforward rationale for designing robots that interact with each other and with humans. The perspective provided by PCT of the perceptual goals controlled by the systems themselves provides a more coherent approach than attempting to infer rules of behavior as seen from the point of view of the external observer [26,53] Ethology. ...
Departing from the conventional view of the reasons for the behavior of living systems, this research presents a radical and unique view of that behavior, as the observed side effects of a hierarchical set of simple, continuous, and dynamic negative feedback control systems, by way of an experimental model implemented on a real-world autonomous robotic rover. Rather than generating specific output from input, the systems control their perceptual inputs by varying output. The variables controlled do not exist in the environment, but are entirely internal perceptions constructed as a result of the layout and connections of the neural architecture. As the underlying processes are independent of the domain, the architecture is universal and thus has significant implications not only for understanding natural living systems, but also for the development of robotics systems. The central process of perceptual control has the potential to unify the behavioral sciences and is proposed as the missing behavioral principle of Artificial Life.
... I now want to construct a model where agents try to influence the methods of their neighbors. I will base this on Perceptual Control Theory (McClelland, 2004). ...
In cybernetics, the basic assumption is that systems aim for control. But what and how are they controlling? I differentiate two categories of control: internal and external control. In external control, one starts from outside, and tries to determine the environment completely. While with internal control, one's own aspirations are taken as a starting point, and useful synergies with the environment are sought. I'll define these concepts in cybernetic terms, and argue why they are not necessary related. There are two aspects in this difference. The first lies in the locality: is there an aim for global control, or only for control in the immediate environment? There is also a difference in what one tries to change. An agent could adapt its links, or try to change either the methods or the goals of its neighbors. Several of these cases will be further explored by giving an existing model that falls under this circumstances. All of these models will be put into an overarching framework. The model of controllability is a model about global control, while the others model local control, based on neural networks or perceptual control theory.
