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Wireless sensor nodes are autonomous devices incorporating sensing, power, computation, and communication into one system. Applications for large scale networks of these nodes are presented in the context of their impact on the hardware design. The demand for low unit cost and multiyear lifetimes, combined with progress in CMOS and MEMS processing,...
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... In recent years, several VTh suppression strategies have been developed to lower the effective threshold voltage in order to obtain high VCE and PCE. The SVC rectifier is seen in Figure 2, 3 [16,17]. The output terminal and ground terminal of the SVC rectifier are linked to the gates of nMOS and pMOS transistors, respectively. ...
... compares the performance of this study to that of other rectifiers previously published. Previous rectifiers' lowest functioning voltage was 0.5V in [17] with a 0.5V low threshold voltage 0.35um CMOS technology. When the input voltage is more than 1V, however, it will not operate, and the application field will be blocked. ...
Telemedicine applications run at very low voltages, necessitating the use of a Great Precision Rectifier with high sensitivity to function at low input voltages. In this study, we used a 65 nm CMOS rectifier to achieve a 0.2V input voltage for Energy Harvesting Telemedicine application. The suggested rectifier, which has two-stage structure and operates at frequency of 2.4GHz, has been found to perform better in cases where the minimum operating voltage is lower than previously published papers, and the rectifier can operate over a wide range of low input voltage amplitudes. Full-Wave Fully gate cross-coupled Rectifiers (FWFR) CMOS Rectifier Efficiency at Freq of 2.4 GHz: With an input voltage amplitude of 2V, the minimum and maximum output voltages are 0.49V and 1.997V, respectively, with a peak VCE of 99.85 percent and a peak PCE of 46.86 percent. This enables the suggested rectifier to be used in a variety of vibration energy collecting systems, including electrostatic, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric energy harvesters. The proposed rectifier, which is built at 2.4GHz and has a two-stage structure, performs better in the event of low input voltage amplitude and has a lower minimum operation voltage than previously published papers. Full-wave fully gate cross-coupled rectifiers (FWFR) CMOS Rectifier Performance Summary at Freq of 2.4 GHz: With a 2V input voltage amplitude, the minimum and maximum output voltages are 0.49V and 1.997V, respectively, with a maximum VCE of 99.85% and a maximum PCE of 46.86%.
... In recent years, several VTh suppression strategies have been developed to lower the effective threshold voltage in order to obtain high VCE and PCE. [16,17]. The output terminal and ground terminal of the SVC rectifier are linked to the gates of nMOS and pMOS transistors, respectively. ...
... Table.3 compares the performance of this study to that of other rectifiers previously published. Previous rectifiers' lowest functioning voltage was 0.5V in [17] with a 0.5V low threshold voltage 0.35um CMOS technology. When the input voltage is more than 1V, however, it will not operate, and the application field will be blocked. ...
Telemedicine applications run at very low input voltages, necessitating the use of Great Precision Rectifier with high sensitivity to function at low input voltages. In this study, we used a 65 nm CMOS rectifier to achieve a 0.2V input voltage for Energy Harvesting Telemedicine application. The suggested rectifier, which has two-stage structure and operates at frequency of 2.4GHz, has been found to perform better in cases where the minimum operating voltage is lower than previously published papers, and the rectifier can operate over a wide range of low input voltage amplitudes. Full-Wave Fully gate cross-coupled Rectifiers (FWFR) CMOS Rectifier Efficiency at Freq of 2.4 GHz: With an input voltage amplitude of 2V, the minimum and maximum output voltages are 0.49V and 1.997V, respectively, with a peak VCE of 99.85 percent and a peak PCE of 46.86 percent. This enables the suggested rectifier to be used in a variety of vibration energy collecting systems, including electrostatic, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric energy harvesters. The proposed rectifier, which is built at 2.4GHz and has a two-stage structure, performs better in the event of low input voltage amplitude and has lower minimum operation voltage than previously published papers. Full-wave fully gate cross-coupled rectifiers (FWFR) CMOS Rectifier Performance Summary at Freq of 2.4 GHz: With a 2V input voltage amplitude, the minimum and maximum output voltages are 0.49V and 1.997V, respectively, with a maximum VCE of 99.85% and a maximum PCE of 46.86%.
... Other challenges include power generation, storage, and management, as shown in Figure 4. Maximizing the functionality of closed packaging and embedded subsystems, i.g. Sensing, signal processing, multiplexing, communication, and activation, as shown in Figure 5 [8][9][10]. ...
This work proposes a new full-wave CMOS rectifier dedicated to wirelessly powered low voltage biomedical implants. It uses a diode Voltage Booster to Avoid Breakdown to maximize the higher wide-Band limit in the CMOS Rectifier for Energy Harvesting of Implantable Devices in a Telemedicine Embedded System. So, The rectifier topology now no longer requires a complicated circuit layout. It uses the best voltage to be had inside the circuit to force the gate of the chosen transistor, lowering present leakage day and lowering channel resistance even as showing excessive mutual conductance. The proposed rectifier at frequency 2.4 GHz has a two-stage structure with higher precision active diodes and diode voltage boosters in a typical 65nm CMOS process. The minimum working voltage is lower than in earlier publications, and the rectifier may be operated with input voltage amplitudes ranging from 0.2V to 4V before the Breakdown occurs. With this improvement, the rectifier can now function with various energy harvest systems such as vibrational energy harvest systems, electrostatic energy harvest systems, electromagnetic energy harvest systems, piezoelectric energy harvest systems, etc. The projected rectifier has a maximum voltage conversion efficiency (VCE) of more than 93.1 percent. A novel full-wave CMOS rectifier for low voltage wireless biomedical implants is described in this article.
... As demonstrated in Fig. 2, the smart dust is a miniature wireless mote. It is constructed as an aggregation of multiple tiny microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) for environment sensing and wireless communications [23]. Different from the passive RFID that obtains energy from a dedicated RF reader, the smart dust can harvest energy from surrounding environment, such as solar, vibrations, or even ambient RF waves [24], for a perpetual operation. ...
In this work, we provide an overview of the hardware architecture of wireless power transfer (WPT), RFID, and wireless information and power transfer (WIPT) systems. The historical milestones and structure differences among WPT, RFID, and WIPT are introduced.
... Monolithic wireless sensor systems that are self-powered have also become realizable with a small footprint of few millimeter and a power consumption below micro-Watts especially in the field of biomedical implants. 6,7 The main functional components of a wireless sensor system include a power link module, a communication link, a controller, and one or multiple sensors. The typical implementation of such systems has been based on COTS, 6,7 while recent trends have moved towards a combination of integrated circuits (ICs) and discrete components and are finally evolving towards a complete monolithic integration [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] where the demand of footprint reduction is driven by upcoming applications. ...
A wirelessly powered temperature sensor is presented in complementary metal‐oxide‐semiconductor (CMOS) 180‐nm process. The wireless power transfer (WPT) is performed using resonant magnetic coupling, and a diode‐less AC to DC conversion is achieved through a quadrature‐oscillator with native‐MOS. The quadrature‐signals are subsequently used to control the diode‐less rectifier switches. The on‐chip temperature sensor exploits the subthreshold region temperature, and the sensed temperature is converted to frequency using a ring‐oscillator, which is implemented using differential cross coupled oscillator‐based delay cells. The temperature sensor architecture also employs a temperature‐insensitive replica circuit to minimize process dependence and enhance power‐supply rejection ratio (PSRR) of the sensing process. The application‐specific integrated circuit has been designed and fabricated in 180‐nm CMOS process and has dimensions of 2 mm × 2 mm. The measurement results demonstrate that the WPT circuit generates a DC voltage of 1V with a power transfer efficiency of 85% for distances 2 to 8 mm with settling time of microseconds to milliseconds. The temperature sensor demonstrates a resolution of < ±0.6C with a sensitivity of 0.52 mV/C and 126.9 Hz/C along with PSRR of −63dB and Integral Non‐Linraity (INL) of 5% measured across six different dies. The back‐scattering communication demonstrates a −53‐dB signal at a distance of 4 mm without affecting the WPT efficiency. The total power consumption of the temperature sensor along with the integrated biases is 120 nW.
... The energy harvesting sources can be used to increase the lifetime and capability of the devices by either replacing the battery usage (Cevik et al., 2015;Do et al., 2013;Kamarudin et al., 2007;Kwon & Rincón-Mora, 2014). The devices powered by energy harvesters can be used to provide vital information on operational and structural circumstances by placing them in inaccessible locations (Cook et al., 2006). There is an increasingly carried out research on energy harvesting (Gilbert & Balouchi, 2018;Li & Bashirullah, 2017;Ottman et al., 2012;Raghunathan et al., 2015;Sauer et al., 2015;Sun et al., 2012;Yildiz, 2007). ...
... This part is a survey of various sources available for energy harvesting. The various sources for energy harvesting are wind turbines, photovoltaic cells, thermoelectric generators and mechanical vibration devices such as piezoelectric devices, electromagnetic devices (Cook et al., 2006). Table 1 shows some of the harvesting methods with their power generation capability (Sauer et al., 2015). ...
... This means they can either implement a circuit used to store the energy harvested or a circuit developed to utilize the energy harvested in producing excess energy. The energy harvested can be stored in rechargeable batteries instead of using capacitors to store the energy (Cook et al., 2006;Kamarudin et al., 2007;Torfs et al., 2006). The attribute of common capacitors to discharge quickly makes them unsuitable as energy storage devices in computational electronics. ...
The performance and potential of energy-harvesting devices depend strongly on the performance and specific properties of materials and used technology. The recent explosion in capability of embedded electronics has not been matched by battery technology. The slow growth of battery energy density has limited device lifetime and added volume and weight. The amount of energy from harvesting is typically small and variable, requiring circuits and architectures which are low power and can scale their power consumption with user requirements and available energy. The energy harvesting research falls into two key areas. One is developing optimal structures of energy harvesting and the other is designing electronic circuits that are efficient enough to store the generated charge. Optimization of microelectronic devices to reduce energy consumption, while all devices strive to achieve good efficiency, balancing performance and power consumption, the application area will dictate design constraints such as size, energy budget, and maximum power. Regarding the research area of optimal design of electronic circuits, a highly efficient CMOS rectifier for vibrational energy harvesting system is proposed. Based on the design considerations, rectifier plays an important role in the application of energy harvesting system and wireless power transfer system. So, the performance of the rectifier decides the efficiency of the system. The proposed low voltage Rectifier is designed for operating frequency of 13.56 MHz using two-stage structure and an Improved precision active diode under a standard 0.18um CMOS process can perform the minimum operating voltage is lower than previous published paper and the rectifier can work at a wide range of input voltage amplitudes of 0.45 V up to 1.95 V. So, the proposed rectifier is suitable to work in Different Types of vibrational energy harvesting system, Electrostatic Energy harvester, Electromagnetic Energy Harvester, Piezoelectric Energy Harvester. The proposed rectifier can achieve peak voltage conversion efficiency of over 81% and power efficiency over 79%. Simulated power consumption of the rectifier is 0.23uW, which is about 28% smaller than the best recently published results.
... In 1990s, the concept of smart dust was proposed. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the smart dust is a miniature wireless mote that integratess multiple tiny microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) for environment sensing and wireless communications [12]. Different from the passive RFID that obtains energy from a dedicated RF reader, the smart dust can harvest energy from surrounding environment, such as solar, vibrations, or even ambient RF waves [13]. ...
Radio frequency (RF) based wireless power transfer provides an attractive solution to extend the lifetime of power-constrained wireless sensor networks. Through harvesting RF energy from surrounding environments or dedicated energy sources, low-power wireless devices can be self-sustaining and environment-friendly. These features make the RF energy harvesting wireless communication (RF-EHWC) technique attractive to a wide range of applications. The objective of this article is to investigate the latest research activities on the practical RF-EHWC design. The distribution of RF energy in the real environment, the hardware design of RF-EHWC devices and the practical issues in the implementation of RF-EHWC networks are discussed. At the end of this article, we introduce several interesting applications that exploit the RF-EHWC technology to provide smart healthcare services for animals, wirelessly charge the wearable devices, and implement 5G-assisted RF-EHWC.
... The previous works in the literature do not consider the wireless channel between the sensors and the BS and/or they pay a price in terms of energy and delay by requiring medium access control (MAC) layer strategies that include channel sensing, listening, and duty cycling of transmissions [6]- [7]. Similar works can be found in [8]- [10], however, the authors either revert to MAC layers, or they don't exploit the feature of diversity in wireless systems. ...
This paper considers the polling of a sensor network using a binary integration scheme. Binary integration is the combination of binary decisions from multiple sensors into a single decision at the base station. The proposed approach accomplishes binary integration in the physical layer in just two packet intervals regardless of the number of sensors, as long as the sensors are within the decoding range of the collector. We assume independent Rayleigh or Ricean links from the sensors to the collector. In the proposed scheme, the sensors simultaneously transmit their signals in each channel of a set of orthogonal channels to create diversity. The statistics of the squared envelopes of the received signals, in both line-of-sight and non line-of-sight channels, are used to perform hypothesis testing using the Neyman-Pearson criteria. It has been shown through the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves that the detection probability strongly depends upon the number of
diversity channels available for transmission.
... For further miniaturization, most of the electronics could be easily integrated through a system-on-chip approach such as the wireless sensor electronics of [9], while the piezoelectric transducer and sensors could also be microfabricated together as in [25]. Therefore it is anticipated that the size of the transponder can be reduced to around 20 mm 3 (with the use of thinfilm batteries or capacitors for energy storage), similar to the size of Smart Dust wireless sensor demonstrations [26]. This would allow the transponders to be embedded within structural components for SHM applications without degrading the structural integrity. ...
Thick metal barriers prevent the use of conventional electromagnetic wireless power transfer due to Faraday shielding effects. Here, for the first time, we demonstrate power transfer to and communication with a compact wireless sensor transponder fully embedded within a solid piece of metal through the use of ultrasonic waves. This technique is an important innovation for applications, such as structural health monitoring of solid metal structural components, which would be weakened by the presence of holes for wiring. The embedded sensor system consists of a single piezoelectric transducer used for both power and data communication, along with an energy storage unit and associated charging circuitry, as well as a representative sensor and sensor data acquisition electronics. The entire sensor transponder was packaged within a compact volume of 11.9 cm
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(0.73 in
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) and can be further miniaturized to millimeter-scale sizes with the use of widely available system-on-chip technologies. The measured power transfer and sensor data results were found to closely match modeling results, achieving a power transfer efficiency of 33% at 440 kHz, showcasing the feasibility and potential of this approach.
... Antenna sizes are on the order of one to tens of centimeters when the gigahertz frequency range is used [125] and become greater as frequency declines. Miniaturized, wirelessly powered passive RFID tags operating at 60 GHz are shown to work with an antenna occupying a total area of 20 mm 2 [126] but at the cost of increased path losses, design complexity, and power density [127]. A biomedical implant has been proposed using 1-GHz power for a 2 × 2 cm 2 square loop transmit antenna and a 2 × 2 mm 2 square loop receive antenna through 15 mm of layered bovine muscle tissue with a measured link gain of −33.2 dB [128]. ...
This article presents recent European-based contributions for wireless power transmission (WPT), related to applications ranging from future Internet of Things (IoT) and fifth-generation (5G) systems to highpower electric vehicle charging. The contributors are all members of a European consortium on WPT, COST Action IC1301 (Table 1). WPT is the driving technology that will enable the next stage in the current consumer electronics revolution, including batteryless sensors, passive RF identification (RFID), passive wireless sensors, the IoT, and machine-to-machine solutions.
