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Background
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a widespread disease of livestock in Nigeria and presents a major constraint to rural economic development. The Jos Plateau was considered free from tsetse flies and the trypanosomes they transmit due to its high altitude and this trypanosomiasis free status attracted large numbers of cattle-keepin...
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... keepers in eight villages did not practice transhumance. The reasons given by respondents for their migration practices in the dry and wet seasons are shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 illustrates the seasonal calendar and migration periods. Figure 6 shows the extent that pastoral access to pasture and water can be restricted by the presence of crops. ...Similar publications
Introduction: Trypanosomes are protozoan parasites of vertebrates transmitted by blood-sucking tsetse fly. Trypanosomes remain a constant threat to the lives of humans and animals throughout large regions of Africa. Aims and Objectives: This study investigated the presence, prevalence, and species of trypanosome parasite in tsetse flies caught in t...
Tsetse flies are major arthropod vectors of trypanosomes that cause debilitating African animal trypanosomiasis. The emergence of drug-resistant trypanosomes is a common problem in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to identify tsetse flies’ seasonal variation in apparent densities and their infection rates and the occurrence of drug-resistant tr...
Background
Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) refractory to trypanosome infection are currently being explored as potential tools to contribute in the control of human and animal African trypanosomiasis. One approach to disrupt trypanosome transmission by the tsetse fly vector involves the use of paratransgenesis, a technique that aims to reduce vector co...
Uganda is the only country where the chronic and acute forms of human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness both occur and are separated by < 100 km in areas north of Lake Kyoga. In Uganda, Glossina fuscipes fuscipes is the main vector of the Trypanosoma parasites responsible for these diseases as well for the animal African Trypanosom...
The plant Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler is one of the most important medicinal species of the genus Zanthoxylum on the African continent. It is used in the treatment and management of parasitic diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. These properties have inspired scientists to investigate species within the genus for bioactive compoun...
Citations
... The overall estimated true prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis based on serological results was 26 %, which is higher than the 14 % reported in a previous study (Van Den Bossche et al., 2000). An increased tsetse fly population and distribution has been reported to occur during cool and wet seasons (Majekodunmi et al., 2013). The current study was performed during the rainy season and this could be the cause of the higher bovine trypanosome exposure. ...
Parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma cause infections in both man and livestock in Africa. Understanding the current spatial distribution of trypanosomes, herd-level factors associated with Trypanosoma brucei infection as well as local knowledge of African trypanosomosis is key to its prevention and control. A cross-sectional study was performed that sampled 53 livestock farmers and 444 cattle throughout Malawi. Cattle were screened for trypanosomes using serology and molecular techniques. Questionnaires were administered to livestock herders and incidence of hospital diagnosed human trypanosome infections was estimated from reports submitted to the Department of Health Unit. The apparent prevalence of trypanosome species based on molecular detection was low for Trypanosoma brucei (2%; 95% CI: 1-4%) and Trypanosoma congolense (3%; 95% CI: 2-5%) but higher for Trypanosoma theileri (26%; 95% CI: 22-30%). The central region of the country was identified as being at a higher risk of T.brucei infection. One of the sampled cattle was confirmed as being infected with Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Human trypanosome cases were more frequently reported in the northern region with an estimated incidence of 5.9 cases per 100,000 people in Rumphi District. The control of zoonotic diseases that impact poor livestock herders requires a One Health approach due to the close contact between humans and their animals and the reliance on animal production for a sustainable livelihood.
... In several countries there have been reports of AAT in cattle settlements free of tsetse flies, but where biting flies are abundant e.g. northern Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad [8][9][10]. The abundance of biting flies throughout the year is important in the epidemiology of the disease and parasite diversities among livestock hosts [11]. ...
African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) is transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies and mechanically by biting flies (tabanids and stomoxyines) in West Africa. AAT caused by Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei brucei is a major threat to the cattle industry. A mathematical model involving three vertebrate hosts (cattle, small ruminants and wildlife) and three vector flies (Tsetse flies, tabanids and stomoxyines) was described to identify elimination strategies. The basic reproduction number (R 0) was obtained with respect to the growth rate of infected wildlife (reservoir hosts) present around the susceptible population using a next generation matrix technique. With the aid of suitable Lyapunov functions, stability analyses of disease-free and endemic equilibria were established. Simulation of the predictive model was presented by solving the system of ordinary differential equations to explore the behaviour of the model. An operational area in southwest Nigeria was simulated using generated pertinent data. The R 0 < 1 in the formulated model indicates the elimination of AAT. The comprehensive use of insecticide treated targets and insecticide treated cattle (ITT/ ITC) affected the feeding tsetse and other biting flies resulting in R 0 < 1. The insecticide type, application timing and method, expertise and environmental conditions could affect the model stability. In areas with abundant biting flies and no tsetse flies, T. vivax showed R 0 > 1 when infected wildlife hosts were present. High tsetse populations revealed R 0 <1 for T. vivax when ITT and ITC were administered, either individually or together. Elimination of the transmitting vectors of AAT could cost a total of US$ 1,056,990 in southwest Nigeria. Hence, AAT in West Africa can only be controlled by strategically applying insecticides PLOS ONE
... Seasonal patterns of movement occur in human and animal populations worldwide due to combinations of economic, social and climatic factors. People make seasonal movements dependent on environmental factors that change with the time of year (for example, to access resources like water, food, livestock markets or grazing land) (Majekodunmi et al., 2013), they may move for work that varies with economic activity (for example, for jobs in industries like agriculture that are more active at certain times of year) (Hampshire, 2015), and social factors such as local holidays can also cause seasonal movements. Similarly, livestock and wildlife movements can vary seasonally, and movement patterns of some species are particularly sensitive to seasonal changes in landscapes. ...
Vector-borne diseases are widespread, diverse and disproportionately affect certain populations. It is well-known that the mobility of host populations is critical to vector-borne disease spread and persistence, and understanding spatiotemporal aspects of this mobility can help predict exposure risk at both fine and large scales. This thesis aims to examine variations in host mobility in the context of vector-borne diseases at opposing ends of the spatiotemporal scale in a ‘three-paper format’. The first paper examines the mobility of a small sample population of humans and livestock in a rural area of western Kenya at a very fine spatiotemporal resolution using surveys and GPS loggers. Several important demographic characteristics are linked to movement patterns, and some seasonal differences in time spent on different types of landcover are observed. Individual variations in movement patterns are likely to be causing differential exposure to some types of vector-borne disease. The second paper further explores the human factors linked to mobility, focusing on the activity-driven movements of the local population in relation to various types of resource access, as well as demographic differences in activity-driven mobility. Both gender and age are found to be linked to activity-driven movements in this small rural population, and women reported spending longer than men accessing health facilities, highlighting how some population subgroups may have differential access to treatments and preventions for vector-borne disease. The final paper is set at the other end of the spatiotemporal scale and quantifies the movement patterns of the population of Mozambique over several months, combining these with country-wide epidemiological data to examine how large-scale differences in mobility may affect exposure to malaria. Human-mediated parasite movements are shown to be highly heterogeneous across Mozambique, and individual movements between rural and urban areas are likely to be driving malaria transmission in some parts of the country. This thesis makes important contributions to our understanding of individual differences in mobility patterns and highlights how both small-scale and large-scale perspectives are valuable for understanding the factors that may increase individual risk of exposure to vector-borne diseases. The work concludes that while mobility underpins much of the dynamics of vector-borne diseases, it is also crucial for understanding differences in the mobility of host populations, as these play an important part in perpetuating transmission and therefore contribute to disease persistence.
... Due to poor surveillance activities and lack of continuous development in the livestock health and disease management, AAT persists with increasing economic losses (Majekodunmi et al., 2013a). Microscopy remains the basic diagnostic approach for AAT using different techniques such as wet mount, thick and thin blood film, haematocrit centrifugation technique, buffy coat technique and standard trypanosome detection method (OIE, 2008). ...
... Notably, these methods are not very sensitive to pick up the organism at low trypanosomes/mL (OIE, 2013;Takeet et al., 2013). Few studies analysed with serology and molecular techniques, respectively have been reported (Ijagbone et al., 2004;Majekodunmi et al., 2013a;Takeet et al., 2013). Proper understanding on the epidemiology of AAT could be important in developing strategic integrated control measures to combat the disease and boost the animal production sector of the country. ...
... Commonly used methods in controlling AAT in many parts of Nigeria is the combination of insecticides on vectors and chemotherapy (Kingsley, 2015). Even at that, reports of AAT in cattle herds persists across the country (Majekodunmi et al., 2013a), hence more studies need to be done on the efficacy of the veterinary preparations administered. Vector control need not to be limited to insecticide treated cattle (ITC), there is a need for a more comprehensive approach like insecticide treated targets (ITT) (Vale et al., 1999). ...
Bovine trypanosomosis is still a major health problem causing severe morbidity and mortality, and the control of the disease is centered on Glossina, the main vector. Information on other vectors (Tabanus and stomoxyine) transmitting trypanosomes in southwestern Nigeria are lacking. This study was designed to investigate the transmission patterns of trypanosome in vectors and cattle to enable an effective control strategy.
Fifteen cattle settlements and institutional farms in the six southwestern states were randomly selected and Nzi traps set to capture transmitting vectors between April 2016 and March 2017. The vectors were identified using morphology, 28S rRNA PCR and Sanger sequencing. Fly abundance with environmental variables, distribution, endosymbionts, bloodmeal sources and feeding behaviour were investigated using standard methods. Insecticidal effects of cypermethrin against fly vectors were assessed using standard methods. Blood (125 µL) was randomly collected from 745 cattle during the same period in some of the locations. The vectors and cattle blood were screened for trypanosomes using 18S rRNA PCR, while Trypanozoon DNA positives were screened for RoTat 1.2 VSG and TgsGP genes. Livestock owners (n = 209) were interviewed using structured questionnaire to determine control methods. Relevant publications in databases from 1960-2017 were screened using PRIMSA checklist to analyse the southwest Nigeria estimates of trypanosome prevalence in livestock and Glossina. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA at α0.05.
The identified transmitting vectors belong to the genera Glossina, Tabanus and Stomoxys. The total apparent density of trapped flies [Glossina (0.6 flies/trap), Tabanus (0.2 flies/trap), Stomoxyine (36.2 flies/trap)] was highest at temperature of 26-28°C, humidity >80.0% and rainfall of 150-220 mm/month. Distribution of flies increased with vegetation density and decreased in areas with high human population density (>100/km2). Sodalis glossinidus (31.3%) was the only endosymbiont in Glossina. Sequenced cytochrome-B mitochondrial DNA segments revealed eight different host species as bloodmeal sources. On the average 78.0%, 19.6% and 10.2% Glossina, Tabanus and Stomoxyine, respectively were fully engorged. Cypermethrin was effective on Stomoxyine using restricted insecticidal application protocol, but ineffective using conventional pour-on protocol. Overall, 71.1%, 33.3% and 22.2% Glossina, Tabanus and Stomoxyine, respectively were positive for trypanosomes. Trypanosomes were identified in Glossina (T. vivax 36.4%, T. brucei 53.5%, T. congolense 5.4% and T. simiae 4.7%), Tabanus (T. vivax 43.5%, T. evansi 39.1%, T. simiae 8.7% and T. godfreyi 8.7%), and Stomoxyine (T. vivax 69.2%, T. evansi 20.5%, T. congolense 5.1% and T. simiae 5.1%). Trypanosome DNA was detected in 23.8% of cattle examined with significant increase in Osun State compared to other states. The species identified were T. vivax (43.4%), T. congolense (31.8%), T. brucei (18.2%) and T. evansi (6.6%). Livestock owners (93.9%) used trypanocides, while 60.5% used insecticides. Published articles revealed overall prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis at 21.3% and trypanosome prevalence of 42.6% from 4,808 Glossina species.
The mechanical vectors (Tabanus and Stomoxyine) are as important as biological vector (Glossina) in the transmission of bovine trypanosomosis in southwest Nigeria. The distribution and vectorial capacity of captured vector species warrants a new effective control strategy against trypanosomes.
... Berenil is a common therapeutic and preventive medicine for animal trypanosomiasis that has been used for >60 years [27]. Since samples were collected during the rainy season, we may expect a higher prevalence of parasites in the dry season when disease transmission peaks [31,42]. In both the Kasungu and Nkhotakota areas, cattle are usually bitten when brought into close contact with flies at river crossings, village water holes, or other tsetse fly habitats in the field [37]. ...
This study aimed to identify trypanosomes infecting cattle in Malawi in order to understand the importance of cattle in the transmission dynamics of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) and Animal African Trypanosomosis (AAT). A total of 446 DNA samples from cattle blood from three regions of Malawi were screened for African trypanosomes by ITS1 PCR. The obtained amplicons were sequenced using a portable next-generation sequencer, MinION, for validation. Comparison of the results from ITS1 PCR and MinION sequencing showed that combining the two methods provided more accurate species identification than ITS1 PCR alone. Further PCR screening targeting the serum resistance-associated (SRA) gene was conducted to detect Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Trypanosoma congolense was the most prevalent Trypanosoma sp., which was found in Nkhotakota (10.8%; 20 of 185), followed by Kasungu (2.5%; 5 of 199). Of note, the prevalence of T. b. rhodesiense detected by SRA PCR was high in Kasungu and Nkhotakota showing 9.5% (19 of 199) and 2.7% (5 of 185), respectively. We report the presence of animal African trypanosomes and T . b . rhodesiense from cattle at the human–livestock–wildlife interface for the first time in Malawi. Our results confirmed that animal trypanosomes are important causes of anemia in cattle and that cattle are potential reservoirs for human African trypanosomiasis in Malawi.
... The pattern of transhumance has made it difficult to design an effective control approach for trypanosomosis (Babalobi et al. 2000). The reduced transhumance activities practiced only during wet season in this study area contrast the large number of cattle owners who practiced transhumance in northern Nigeria (Majekodunmi et al. 2013). The death associated with bovine trypanosomosis was highest on the account of the cattle owners. ...
Significant increases in human and livestock populations coupled with agricultural practices have changed the socioeconomic perspectives of livestock diseases. Evaluating the socioeconomic impact of bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors (Glossina, Tabanus and Stomoxys) from the perspective of the livestock owners is of great significance. Participatory rural appraisal was conducted among 209 livestock owners (focus groups) to determine the behavioural practices of animal husbandary to bovine trypanosomosis. In Nigeria, common Trypanosoma species found in cattle are Trypanosoma vivax, Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma brucei. Trypanosomosis peaks were reported by owners to be in the months of March–August. A total of 70.8% (95%CI 64.32–76.56%) cattle owners perceived trypanosomosis as a major disease in their herd, 13.4% (95%CI 9.43–18.68%) practiced transhumance in the wet season and 93.9% (95%CI 88.58–96.92%) make use of trypanocides, and approximately US$ 8.4 million is spent annually on trypanocides in southwest Nigeria livestock industry. About 60.5% (95%CI 51.84–68.48) make use of insecticides against transmitting vectors, and only 1.9% (95%CI 0.75–4.82%) have ever heard of any form of government intervention scheme. Estimated losses ≥ US$ 426 (80–100% loss) can be incurred on a single animal depending on the size and market value. There is significant increase (16.2%, 95%CI 11.15–23.00%, P < 0.05) in the mortality rate of bovine trypanosomosis when compared to other livestock diseases. It will therefore be useful to involve the livestock owners with devising new and integrated measures for reducing the impact of this trypanosomosis.
... Fulani pastoralists have traditionally been responsible for maintaining the majority of the cattle herds in Nigeria. Animal husbandry practices, knowledge and attitudes have been shown to have direct impact on the persistence of AAT in livestock in Nigeria (Majekodunmi et al., 2013a;Majekodunmi et al., 2013b). Improving livestock production systems in Nigeria through education of cattle keepers on appropriate application of trypanocides and insecticides can reduce drug and insecticide resistance and socioeconomic losses. ...
... The sub-humid zones have been a strategic focus for promotion of cattle production (ILRI/NAPRI, 1984;Majekodunmi et al., 2013a;Majekodunmi et al., 2013b;Isaac et al., 2016;Ducrotoy et al., 2016). A major restructuring of the regional livestock industry is underway where humid zones are under pressure from immigration of incoming Fulani pastoralists with their livestock (Azuwike and Enwerem, 2010). ...
... Many studies have been undertaken on the Jos Plateau since it was considered to be a tsetse-free zone (Kalu, 1991(Kalu, , 1996bKalu and Uzoigwe, 1996;Kalu and Lawani, 1996;Kalejaiye and Omotainse, 2001;Majekodunmi et al., 2013aMajekodunmi et al., , 2013bDucrotoy et al., 2016). Recent molecular studies have revealed higher prevalence, for example 46.8% in Jos Plateau (Majekodunmi et al., 2013a). ...
Despite extensive attempts over many decades to control African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) across the tsetse fly belt of Nigeria, AAT persists as major animal health problem causing severe morbidity and mortality in livestock. The large agricultural losses in turn have severe adverse impacts on sustainable agricultural development. Despite this, in the past 50 years there have been no significant national control programs against AAT. This review explores the history of AAT control in Nigeria, examining the successes and failures in measures adopted in Nigeria to control AAT and the changing disease epidemiology.
... This system of management practice, especially the extensive practice, has been reported to strongly influence livestock diseases risks in cattle herds (Alhaji and Babalobi 2016). Cultural practices of congregational grazing and watering of herds together, which is common during dry season, have been reported to influence trypanosomiasis cases in Jos Plateau, North-Central Nigeria (Majekodunmi et al. 2013). The socio-cultural activities of the pastoralists, such as culture of borrowing and loaning cattle, introduction of new cattle into herd without quarantine and giving out cattle as gift or payment for dowry, were found to significantly influence exposure of their cattle herds to risks of clinical bovine The annual economic impact due to clinical bovine dermatophilosis in the surveyed herds was estimated at 908,463.9 USD. ...
Dermatophilosis is a contagious disease of high economic importance. The study assessed knowledge/awareness and clinical burden of and mitigation measures practised against clinical bovine dermatophilosis in pastoral herds of North-Central Nigeria and associated socio-cultural factors that predisposed to its occurrence in herds. A cross-sectional survey was conducted between October 2015 and September 2016. Questionnaires were administered on pastoralists and clinical assessment of cattle with gross pathological lesions indicative of dermatophilosis conducted. Associated economic impact was estimated. All 384 selected pastoralists participated in the survey. The majorities of nomadic (97.4%) and sedentary (68.2%) pastoralists significantly (p < 0.05) reported to have heard about dermatophilosis. Majorities of the sedentary (91.7%) and nomadic (97.4%) pastoralists mentioned the use antibiotics to manage the disease. Pastoralists in age group 70–79 years were more likely (OR 15.22; 95% CI 4.69, 49.34) to possess satisfactory knowledge about the disease. Culture of giving out cattle as gift or payment for dowry was more likely (OR 28.56; 95% CI 15.64, 52.12) to influence dermatophilosis occurrence in herds. Overall clinical dermatophilosis burden was 3.6% (95% CI 3.46, 3.80) and the annual economic impact was estimated at 908,463.9 USD. This study has given an idea to the status of pastoralists’ levels of awareness about dermatophilosis in Nigeria, which can be harnessed by policy makers to develop its mitigation measures. Significant influence of pastoralists’ socio-cultural activities on dermatophilosis occurrence in herds was identified. Surveillance and control programmes towards dermatophilosis that take these factors into consideration will be beneficial to the herders.
... These are Fulani who are avoiding, mostly, non-violent natural resource conflicts and tensions arising from population increase and land pressure as well as antagonistic practices like the denial of herder access to land and water and the closure of cattle tracks and pastures by farmers. These restrictions convey the impression to the pastoralists that they are an unwanted nuisance (Majekodunmi et al. 2013). The second is sudden and massive immigration into the KGR by internally displaced people who fled from areas of violent conflicts and insecurity, often following personal experience of violence directed at and/or perpetrated by other Fulani. ...
Increasing land use and associated competition for natural resources in the wake of high human and livestock population pressures have been major challenges confronting pastoralists of West Africa. This is especially true in Nigeria where Fulani make up 4% of the national population and prevailing national insecurity issues are impacting on pastoral livelihoods, including violent conflicts over land and ethnic, religious and political disparities. This study examined the dynamics of immigration within the Kachia Grazing Reserve (KGR), an exclusively Fulani pastoralist community in Kaduna State, northwest Nigeria, prompted by concerns from both the farming communities and the authorities about mounting pressure on existing limited resources, particularly in regard to availability of cattle grazing resources. Drawing from a household census conducted in 2011 and employing a range of qualitative methods (focus group discussions and key informant interviews), this study explored the drivers and consequences of immigration and subsequent integration within the KGR community. The study revealed two types of immigration: a steady trickle of pastoralists migrating to the reserve to settle and acquire land, secure from the stresses of competition from cultivators, and the sudden influx of internally displaced persons fleeing violent clashes in their areas of origin. Population pressure within the reserve has risen steadily over the past three decades, such that it is severely overgrazed (as evidenced by reports from the KGR community that the animals run short of pasture even during the wet season due to desertification and the spread of non-edible weeds). The newer immigrants, fleeing conflict, tended to arrive in the reserve with significantly larger herds than those kept by established residents. Pastoralists in the reserve have been forced back into the practice of seasonal transhumance in both wet and dry seasons to support their herds, with all the attendant risks of theft, clashes with cultivators and increased disease transmission.
... The quality of soil and pasture in KGR are poor (Ducrotoy et al. 2017a). While the area was declared free of tsetse flies after a successful spray programme in 1967 (Oxby 1984), subsequently, tsetse flies have reinvaded; this and poor pasture remain a serious problem for animal health on the reserve (Majekodunmi et al. 2013). When first established, KGR was well equipped with infrastructure such as veterinary and health services, dams, boreholes and fodder banks by ILCA (Kaufmann et al. 1986;Oxby 1984). ...
While women in pastoralist communities are key stakeholders in the production of milk and dairy products for income generation, they are largely ignored in other areas of development such as health. The need to involve women self-help groups, in pastoralist areas in both animal health and human health development programmes, is essential, particularly given the high incidence of zoonotic diseases in these communities (Maudlin I, Eisler MC and Welburn SC, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1530):2777-2787, 2009). Understanding the process and impact of social networks on livelihoods is essential for any development programme that aims to prevent and control zoonotic diseases. This study examines the roles and responsibilities of women self-help groups in Kachia Grazing Reserve and Bokkos, Jos Plateau, Nigeria. The findings show that groups promoting social, physical and psychological health strongly motivated women’s involvement in self-help groups. Self-help activities showed commitment to effect a change in their livelihoods, despite constraining environmental, cultural and social factors. Engagement of women’s self-help groups in livestock development programmes offers a powerful instrument for driving forward the One Health practice in pastoralist communities, promoting human, animal and environmental health and well-being.
