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Controlling the microstructure of materials by means of phase separation is a versatile tool for optimizing material properties. Phase separation has been exploited to fabricate intricate microstructures in many fields including cell biology, tissue engineering, optics, and electronics. The aim of this study was to use phase separation to tailor th...
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... The composite material possessed a range of moduli (1.2 MPa to 2300 MPa) and thus, achieved targeted mechanical responses, with the lowest cell proliferation and a less uniform distribution on the flexible ink [152]. Inkjet printing has also been used to achieve inks with differing drug release profiles (Figure 6d) [153] [154]. Another study by Wildman et al., [154] used inkjet to successfully control the process of phase separation, which in turn created a microstructure which was exploited to alter the spatial location of drugs and achieve a library of desired drug release profiles [154]. ...
... Inkjet printing has also been used to achieve inks with differing drug release profiles (Figure 6d) [153] [154]. Another study by Wildman et al., [154] used inkjet to successfully control the process of phase separation, which in turn created a microstructure which was exploited to alter the spatial location of drugs and achieve a library of desired drug release profiles [154]. Material extrusion additive manufacturing (MEAM) (also referred to as fused deposition modelling (FDM) or fused filament fabrication (FFF)) and extrusion bioprinting approaches have been employed together to deliver and pattern multiple cell-laden composite hydrogels and/or sacrificial hydrogels. ...
... Inkjet printing has also been used to achieve inks with differing drug release profiles (Figure 6d) [153] [154]. Another study by Wildman et al., [154] used inkjet to successfully control the process of phase separation, which in turn created a microstructure which was exploited to alter the spatial location of drugs and achieve a library of desired drug release profiles [154]. Material extrusion additive manufacturing (MEAM) (also referred to as fused deposition modelling (FDM) or fused filament fabrication (FFF)) and extrusion bioprinting approaches have been employed together to deliver and pattern multiple cell-laden composite hydrogels and/or sacrificial hydrogels. ...
Advances in bioprinting have enabled the fabrication of complex tissue constructs with high speed and resolution. However, there remains significant structural and biological complexity within tissues that bioprinting is unable to recapitulate. Bone, for example, has a hierarchical organization ranging from the molecular to whole organ level. Current bioprinting techniques and the materials employed have imposed limits on the scale, speed, and resolution that can be achieved, rendering the technique unable to reproduce the structural hierarchies and cell–matrix interactions that are observed in bone. The shift towards biomimetic approaches in bone tissue engineering, where hydrogels provide biophysical and biochemical cues to encapsulated cells, is a promising approach to enhance the biological function and development of tissues for in vitro modelling. A major focus in bioprinting of bone tissue for in vitro modelling is creating the dynamic microenvironmental niches to support, stimulate, and direct the cellular processes for bone formation and remodeling. Hydrogels are ideal materials for imitating the extracellular matrix since they can be engineered to present various cues whilst allowing bioprinting. Here, we review recent advances in hydrogels and 3D bioprinting towards creating a microenvironmental niche that is conducive to tissue engineering of in vitro models of bone.
This review focuses on hydrogels and 3D bioprinting in bone tissue engineering for development of in vitro models of bone. It highlights challenges in recapitulating the biological complexity seen in bone and how synergistic application of dynamic hydrogels and innovative bioprinting pipelines could address these challenges to achieve bone models.
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... Creation of patterned structures with specific structures in polymer materials has broad application prospects in fluidic, drug controlled release, sensor and so on [1][2][3][4]. Traditional methods for fabricating micro-structures, such as etching and mask, usually require high cost and advanced manufacturing equipment. Due to the disadvantages of low controllability, high cost and poor environmental protection, they gradually fail to meet the needs of modern development, which hinders the development of patterned structure surfaces [5,6]. ...
... Another way to create 3D PEGDA scaffold architectures is through the use of SLA and DLP which are vat photo-cross-linking technologies that share similarities but also exhibit significant differences (Figure 3e) [97][98][99][100][101]. In SLA, a vat of photopolymer resin is subjected to an ultraviolet (UV) laser. ...
In this brief review, we discuss the recent advancements in using poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels for tissue engineering applications. PEGDA hydrogels are highly attractive in biomedical and biotechnology fields due to their soft and hydrated properties that can replicate living tissues. These hydrogels can be manipulated using light, heat, and cross-linkers to achieve desirable functionalities. Unlike previous reviews that focused solely on material design and fabrication of bioactive hydrogels and their cell viability and interactions with the extracellular matrix (ECM), we compare the traditional bulk photo-crosslinking method with the latest three-dimensional (3D) printing of PEGDA hydrogels. We present detailed evidence combining the physical, chemical, bulk, and localized mechanical characteristics, including their composition, fabrication methods, experimental conditions, and reported mechanical properties of bulk and 3D printed PEGDA hydrogels. Furthermore, we highlight the current state of biomedical applications of 3D PEGDA hydrogels in tissue engineering and organ-on-chip devices over the last 20 years. Finally, we delve into the current obstacles and future possibilities in the field of engineering 3D layer-by-layer (LbL) PEGDA hydrogels for tissue engineering and organ-on-chip devices.
... Potent drugs or drugs with low dose requirements are conventionally explored for inkjet printing due to the technology's suitability for printing low dose drug products. However, inkjet printing has also been used to fabricate the entire 3D drug-loaded tablets (Acosta-Vélez et al., 2018;Kyobula et al., 2017;Sen et al., 2020) and implants (Ruiz-Cantu et al., 2021). The affordability, precise control of droplet deposition, and versatility of inkjet printing has supported the continued expansion of research in its pharmaceutical applications, resulting in a wealth of publicly available data on printing parameters and outcomes (Evans et al., 2021). ...
Inkjet printing has been extensively explored in recent years to produce personalised medicines due to its low cost and versatility. Pharmaceutical applications have ranged from orodispersible films to complex polydrug implants. However, the multi-factorial nature of the inkjet printing process makes formulation (e.g., composition, surface tension, and viscosity) and printing parameter optimization (e.g., nozzle diameter, peak voltage, and drop spacing) an empirical and time-consuming endeavour. Instead, given the wealth of publicly available data on pharmaceutical inkjet printing, there is potential for a predictive model for inkjet printing outcomes to be developed. In this study, machine learning (ML) models (random forest, multilayer perceptron, and support vector machine) to predict printability and drug dose were developed using a dataset of 687 formulations, consolidated from in-house and literature-mined data on inkjet-printed formulations. The optimized ML models predicted the printability of formulations with an accuracy of 97.22%, and predicted the quality of the prints with an accuracy of 97.14%. This study demonstrates that ML models can feasibly provide predictive insights to inkjet printing outcomes prior to formulation preparation, affording resource- and time-savings.
The necessity for personalized patient treatment has drastically increased since the contribution of genes to the differences in physiological and metabolic state of individuals have been exposed. Different approaches have been considered so far in order to satisfy all of the diversities in patient needs, yet none of them have been fully implemented thus far. In this framework, various types of 2D printing technologies have been identified to offer some potential solutions for personalized medication, which development is increasing rapidly. Accurate drug-on-demand deposition, the possibility of consuming multiple drug substances in one product and adjusting individual drug concentration are just some of the few benefits over existing bulk pharmaceuticals manufacture, which printing technologies brings. With inclusion of nanotechnology by printing nanoparticles from its dispersions some further opportunities such as controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release or targeted and dose depending on drug delivery were highlighted. Yet, there are still some challenges to be solved before such products can reach the pharmaceutical market. In those terms mostly chemical, physical as well as microbiological stability concerns should be answered, with which 2D printing technology could meet the treatment needs of every individual and fulfill some existing drawbacks of large-scale batch production of pharmaceuticals we possess today.
Three-dimensional (3D) printing and 3D bioprinting are promising technologies for a broad range of healthcare applications from frontier regenerative medicine and tissue engineering therapies to pharmaceutical advancements yet must overcome the challenges of biocompatibility and resolution. Through comparison of traditional biofabrication methods with 3D (bio)printing, this review highlights the promise of 3D printing for the production of on-demand, personalized, and complex products that enhance the accessibility, effectiveness, and safety of drug therapies and delivery systems. In addition, this review describes the capacity of 3D bioprinting to fabricate patient-specific tissues and living cell systems (e.g., vascular networks, organs, muscles, and skeletal systems) as well as its applications in the delivery of cells and genes, microfluidics, and organ-on-chip constructs. This review summarizes how tailoring selected parameters (i.e., accurately selecting the appropriate printing method, materials, and printing parameters based on the desired application and behavior) can better facilitate the development of optimized 3D-printed products and how dynamic 4D-printed strategies (printing materials designed to change with time or stimulus) may be deployed to overcome many of the inherent limitations of conventional 3D-printed technologies. Comprehensive insights into a critical perspective of the future of 4D bioprinting, crucial requirements for 4D printing including the programmability of a material, multimaterial printing methods, and precise designs for meticulous transformations or even clinical applications are also given.
